The collected works from; a
BRITGRAV4 Conference talk,
a BRITGRAV5 Conference talk, the
"James Clerk Maxwell 150 Years On Conference" poster presentation
and an Institute of Physics poster presentation
MSc Applied Energy in Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Cranfield,
MSc Instrumentation & Analytical Science UMIST,
Master Of Physics with Astrophysics Kent,
BSc Technology The Open University,
BScience The Open University
Dedicated to The Merry Maidens of
Cornwall for the Republic of Atlantis in the name of Cicero for
Republicans with The Hague around the World
PREFACE
This book is founded upon the ancient Druids' Classical Mechanics and based upon
the scientific thinking of the so-called ancient Greeks and Romans, e.g. Democritus, Artistarchos, Heraclides, Hipparchus, Poseidonius,
Hero, Plutarchos, Lucretio and others who knew them.
It is based upon the treatise " Principles of the Universe ".
It follows with the opening of the 1600's Scientific Revolution with the modern-classical scientists,
e.g. Romer, Tycho Brahe, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, and others who studied the works of the
so-called ancients and attacked the Catholic Church for its feudal system.
It then continues with the study of 1700's - 1900's Classical Mechanics through the Age of Reason, the Republic of
Letters and with the works of Diderot, D'Alembert, Lazare Carnot, Laplace, Sadi Carnot, Coulomb, Ampѐre, Volta, Ohm, Stokes, Kelvin, Maxwell, Heaviside as well as Poincaré.
It concludes with the study of what caused the so-called modern-day physicists to give up
on Classical Mechanics and concludes with what they did wrong and why they failed to note their own case of scientific fraud
while claiming that " classical mechanics " could not be used to explain the atom. This fraudulent modern-day era started
around the start of the 1900s when modern-day physicists gave up performing experiments and ignored the theoretical words
of the laboratory experimenters, e.g. G.F.C. Searle, Heaviside, Professor Lodge and J.J. Thomson, during the so-called "
Cavendish Years " at Cambridge as well as the so-called " Gottingen Years " at Gottingen with the laboratory experimenters
such as Walter Ritz, Walter Kaufmann, Wilhelm Wien, Runge, Mossbauer, Paschen and others.
An anisotropic-dipole graviton-electron of 1/19 the proton-centre diameter with
a thin shell in a double-hemispherical formation
A proton of 1836 spherical-stationary (graviton-locked) electrons
formed from a massive-primordial electron cloud
A length-varying (absorption-time dependent)
particle-photon mass
A graviton-electron membrane-collision (and magneton collision)
causing photon emission
Apollonius, Galileo, Kepler and Newton on Orbital Dynamics
A postulation that the " Graviton = Cosmic Filament "
Cosmic Strings all have the same helical-conservation of angular-momentum structure which
hooks matter together by screwing through the gaps inside of nucleons, between sub-atomic
structures and displace matter temporarily within sub-atomic particles to explain
how the mass ( intra-atomic ) flow holds sub-atomic particles together by deducing the mass-anomaly
phenomena
Perpetual Motion, over-unity heat electricity-generator, ( please see Appendix )
PART I: CLASSICAL STRUCTURE
PART II: ELECTRON STRUCTURE
PART III: PROTON STRUCTURE
PART IV: THE ELECTRON STRUCTURE EQUATIONS
PART V: DISCUSSION
PART VI: CONCLUSION
APPENDIX
GLOSSARY
PORTABLE-DOCUMENT FILES
INTRODUCTION
Modern studies of “ the
modern atom " usually begin with so-called " Quantum Mechanics ", i.e. making it
their personal study with the writer depicting a relationship between various atomic constants, i.e. by dimensional
analysis, ( without giving an illustration of the physical picture that is being
measured ) and then continue with a description of the entire atom with only a
few sketches ( which the writer hastily reminds the reader to not take
seriously ). Our Quantum Mechanics, i.e. " number Mechanics ", was supposed to mean by definition,
single-particle mechanics, as opposed to the statistical Mechanics of Rayleigh and Jeans, which
involved dealing with the mechanics of large numbers of atoms. " Quantum Mechanics "
refuses to accept the existence of a single particle such as the graviton, claiming the graviton
to be a wave or a part of the imaginary space-time matrix. This is due to physicists making mistakes
in classical physics, wrongly interpreting their own mistakes as facts and then mis-applying them to
" Quantum Mechanics ". This is all evident from the changes of study, i.e. ( changes from experimental work
to theoretical study ) which are observed and noted when the Solvay Conferences were occurring. This is
what happens when unelected bodies ( bodies without women ) are left to decide what is and what isn't
Classical Physics or Classical Mechanics. In this book, quantum mechanics is left to the Reader to openly decide between,
i.e. between " wave-like funtions with time-space matrices " or " atomic-gearing-like collisions through fluid-like flow ".
Here the the metric parameters of force and volumetric flow ( from classical mechanics through hydraulic-engineering studies
and atomic-gearing collisions through tribology studies ), within the atom and the electron, become the focal points for examining
and analysing the atom along with the electron in a small letter " q " quantum manner. The particle status of the individual graviton,
magneton, photon as well as the composite neutron and proton are studied, i.e. via their mathematical relations and analyses of their
measurements from the experimenters ( in the original language ).
The reader is initially
interested in the equations, but the writer fails to complete the picture,
( i.e. he claims that we can never see the quantum Atom ) leaving the reader uncertain
that the story is worth reading and is nothing more than a story.This makes you wonder what they are looking at
anyway, since it is well known in Biology that the eye can detect a single
photon.
Johannes Kepler began all of
the real study of classical mechanics in the year 1600, when he wrote that he wanted
to replace " celestial theology " with celestial mechanics and celestial physics.
The first portable document file below depicts the Earth's elliptical orbit
about the Sun and contains a table of data which describe the parameters used
in this study, to predict where the Earth is and at what distance it is from the Sun
for every second of its annual orbit, i.e. using algebra. The second portable document
file discusses the diagram and the table. The third portable-document file discusses
the mass of the universe, i.e. the Cosmos ( as well as its angular momentum as it equates
to Planck's Constant ) and the fourth portable-document file discusses
the thickness of the electron surface, e.g. the G.F.C. Searle " electric-convection potential "
together with the so-called " Electron spin-coupling length ", which is the summative-length total of all
of the combined electron spin-couplings of the Hydrogen-atom's 1st-shell magnetons, together with the
electron-magneton rim, within the ground-state orbit of Hydrogen for 1 second, e.g. 3.065723364 metres.
This measurement is the circumference of the electron rim, times the orbit number of the
ground-state electron in Hydrogen. The active spin-coupling event, is a form of areal velocity, i.e. from the use
of the term by Johannes Kepler. The spin-coupling length is always constant, although the time and radius of
the spin-coupling event may differ in each of the 6 magneton-orbital shells of the proton.
Let us pause for a moment and borrow from the " Principles of the Universe " portable document file, i.e. to
discuss the entire-hypothetical length of the initial spin-coupling action.
To return to the direction of energy transfer of the magneton, the energy of the proton's accelerated
magneton changes, i.e. via its momentum increase which was acquired from the electron performing
the spin-coupling “ charge “, into second-dimensional membrane plasma. This adds to the mass-energy flow and force per metre square
or pressure, within the hollow-spherical electron's surface membrane. The change in energy is so commuted within the proton.
This change in energy forces the plasma, where the graviton wires emanate to shift from second-dimensional
membrane-plasma energy, into third-dimensional graviton energy at a constant velocity, C
metres per second.
The 1st-shell magneton force from the electron-magneton/proton-magneton spin-coupling meshing, also pushes second-dimensional
membrane plasma from within the hollow-spherical electron's surface, back into the south pole magneton, which is of course
emanating from each of the proton’s spherical electrons at the lower south pole of the proton’s constituent-spherical electrons.
This fluid-like plasma should obey all of the laws of Classical Fluids, i.e. see Tom Faber’s
book on Classical Fluids from Cambridge in regards to Euler, Bernoulli, and Navier-Stokes.
This linear-integral back-pressure, i.e. from the magneton which is emanating from the south pole of the
hollow spherical electrons within the proton'c dentre, forces the plasma to slow down from C metres per second to C x F.S.C.
metres per second and change thereby back into one-dimensional magneton energy in the 1st shell ground-state
magneton. This magneton whose divergence is zero, then of course travels back orthogonally through the proton's equatorial plane where the orbiting
electron is continually accelerating it, at a time-independent radius ( in a time-dependent manner ).
The time-dependent manner depicts an entire flight time of energy commutation. This commences with the initiation of spin-coupling and ends with
the initiation of the next spin-coupling cycle, i.e. 6 spin-couplings per orbit for the electron and 6.57966674 x 1015
ground-state orbits per electron per second equate with 3.94780005 x 1016 spin-couplings per second or a
spin-coupling to sequential spin-coupling cycle time of 2.53305635 x 10-17 second.
The maximum length within the atom which the spin-coupling force must be commuted equates with 6.23233555 x 10-8
metre. This value is derived from the circumference of the 36 magnetons in the ionised-hydrogen proton. The molar radius is
7.34745933 x 10 metre, i.e. the 1st-shell radius divided by the Fine Structure Constant and Pi2.
Pi x 7.34745933 x 10-10 metre equates with the circumference of 2.30827242 x 10-9 metre.
Since there are 36 magnetons constituted by the 6 molar-radius shells with 6 magnetons in each shell ( after the Muon ),
the magnetons are evenly spaced ( after Thièle ) by 1/10 the molar radius. This constitutes a total of 6.23233555 x 10-8
metre, i.e. 6 x [ 2.30827242 x 10-9 m x ( 1 + 0.9 + 0.8 + 0.7 + 0.6 + 0.5 ) ] equates with 27 x 2.30827242 x 10-9 m.
2.30827242 x 10-9 m divided by a commutation velocity of C m s-1, equates with a commutation-flight time of
2.07888336 x 10-16 second, i.e. from the commencement of one spin-coupling event to the next one.
The reciprocal value equates with ratio of the induction-state electron orbit to the ground-state electron orbit, 17,275 x 10 x 8Pi2 / F.S.C.4.
The ratio of the commutation-flight time of 2.07888336 x 10-16 second to the spin-coupling cycle time of 2.53305635 x 10-17
second, equates with 648 divided by 8Pi2, i.e. 648 = 36 x 6 x 3 / 8Pi2 , or 362 divided by 16Pi2.
This leaves us to complete
the task of describing the atom with classical mechanics and classical physics,
e.g. one can throw in as many historical anecdotes as one likes in
order to keep the readers’ attention, or draw realistic illustrations of
experiments which can actually be photographed ( see The Experiments.pdf ).
Two types of stories emerge, one with endless equations that bore
the readers as they do not describe the atom and the second type where the
physics historian depicts how attempts were made to describe the atom, but the
physicists became frustrated with Classical Physics ( which was taken to be statistical mechanics )
and gave up ( deciding to invent " single-particle mechanics " and gave up on the simple atom, ( i.e. the proton ).
At the Solvay Conferences ( an unelected body ) they invented the scientifically fruadulent Quantum Mechanics
and General Relativity, which are equally boring and fail to
give us a picture of the atom ).
Since we are at a point where
artists are becoming interested in science and scientists are trying to become
artistic, it may be the right time to point out to physics historians what has
been overlooked by scientists in different epochs, i.e. because the moment was
not right for elucidation ( due to various conflicting societal, political,
economical, militaristic and no doubt religious issues ). This is all probably
due to the Devil.
Leaving religious mythologies
aside, by taking a cue from the Devil, as modern-day Satanists advise us, one
can start with the era around the year 1913, ( i.e. just before World War One
begins ), when Bohr, having discovered the length of the Hydrogen atom 1st-shell
radius, promptly gave up on classical physics and wrote a famously-overlooked
memorandum to Rutherford describing his predicament. Bohr wrote that it is admittedly an impossible
task to describe the atom with Classical mechanics.He went on to invent ( early ) Quantum
Mechanics, which has not answered the question as to what the atom looks like,
nor answered the other questions on the same level concerning the electron,
proton, neutron, graviton, magneton, photon and any other particle which the
reader has in mind.
FIGURE 1: A quick overview. In Fig.1 the electron graviton ( not shown ), is hypothetically
interacting with the electron surface at the electron's approximate centre, i.e. the graviton is
travelling orthogonally into the electron's centre at the velocity of light.
The electron is orbiting at 137th the velocity of light,
( i.e. the velocity of light times the Fine Structure Constant = 2.1876 million metres per second ).
The graviton hypothetically contributes one half its mass to the electron as it collides with the electron
surface, i.e. 1/2 mass times velocity squared = the energy of the collision.
This is gravitational deceleration ( negative acceleration of the graviton ), which should equal the inertial
acceleration of the electron's hypothetical magneton rim. It will be shown in the text below how both the
electron's radius and the electron's hypothetical thickness, ( i.e. the proton's centre radius/19 divided by
the electron-charge ionising-volume per 1st shell-radius squared orbital-area times unit radius, "e / 1st-shell radius2 x unit length" ),
are found to equal approximately 0.212 Newtons for both the electron graviton's force of deceleration and the
electron-magneton rim's force of inertial acceleration. 0.212 Newtons = the Coulomb Force ( see text for details )
divided by the cube of the Fine Structure Constant. ( See the G.F.C. Searle portable-document file to see how
the electron-surface membrane receives the inward-coming flow of the magneton and the graviton, i.e. to emit light.
See the Poincaré Energy Equation 2Pi x mC2, Equation 1 and Equation 2 for the mathematics about how the
electron's graviton-decelerational forces equal the electron's rim-spin inertial forces. i.e. 0.212 Newtons )
0.212 Newtons is from the force equation:
" the electron mass squared x the gravitational constant and divided by the so-called Planck Length squared. "
If we look at the classical mechanics of the reaction of photon-emission absorption-phenomena, we
can find a relation between the stress-strain equation for circumferential increase in rim spin and axial deceleration
( electron-gravitational deceleration ) of the electron itself along the electron-gravitational axis.
D. J. Dunn in his treatment of classical mechanics,
gives the elasticity modulus ( measurement ) as being equal to the circumferential ( electron-rim spin ) stress minus the axial ( electron-graviton )
deceleration stress.
The Poisson ratio is considered as being equal to 1, i.e. so the equation reads: 0.212 Newtons x the Planck Length/ [ ( 4Pi x electron radius squared ) x ( the electron's
effective radius " thickness " ) ] equals the circumferential ( electron-rim spin ) stress minus the axial ( electron graviton ) deceleration stress
The circumferential ( electron-rim spin ) stress is a maximum of 1.022 Mega-electronVolts and the
axial ( electron graviton ) deceleration stress is a maximum of half 1.022 Mega-electronVolts, i.e. the 511,002 electronVolts which constitutes the normal mass-energy of the
bare-pure electron with no photon inside of it. This means that the stress caused to the
electron's rim when it is decelerated by proton-magneton capture, combined with the stress caused by the electron's axial graviton
penetrating the decelerated-electron's ( inner-negative tension ) hemispherical-surface, causes photon emission.
The numerical value we get,
e.g. of 3.822091799 x 1013 kgm-1s-2
equates with the Coulomb Force via the electron-charge volume, the electron-charge volume to 1st shell-radius
squared ratio, the electron charge-to-mass ratio, the magnetic constant.
the 62,584 magnetons ( which ionise the proton ), Wien's photon-length displacement
Law and the Fine Structure Constant. This indicates that the change in electron
deceleration due to proton-magneton ( electron-capture ), causes a change in the
ratio of stress between the electron rim and the electron centre, i.e.
a change which causes a different photon length and photon temperature.
The electron-charge volume to electron-mass ratio, times the
magnetic constant per 4Pi steradian, [ e x 4Pi x 10-7 x unit area / me4Pi ]
often shows up as a scaling factor, i.e. involving gravitational equations which seem too large compared to well-known
standard-physics equations. This scaling factor, which results in units of 17,588 metres squared,
is equivalent to 511,002 electronVolts multiplied by the Fine Structure Constant and divided lastly by the
0.212 Newtons of gravitational force. 511.002 electronVolts is the energy per metre cubed of the standard
electron, e.g. the standard electron orbiting the proton's first shell in the ground state of the
proton at Absolute Zero ( 0 degrees in degrees Kelvin ). The " Electron Stress-Strain Relationships.pdf ",
will attempt to simplify the terms used in the preceding
paragraphs.
The contracting magneton force on the electron, which equals 8.238 x
10-8 Newtons. This value is found from the ratio of the product of
the 13.605 Volts, ( which ionise the proton and its orbiting electron away from
each other ) times the electron-proton charging-ionising volume, to the length
of the 1st proton-shell magneton-orbit
e =
the external-magnetic volume.
The ( Coulomb-force equalising ) volume within
which 62,584 parallel magnetons, ( travelling at the velocity of light ), can separate an electron from
a proton. This volume = 1.6021917 x 10-19m3.
These 62,584 magnetons have the force which can just overcome the Hydrogen proton's
inward-pointing ( magnetic ) Coulomb-binding force on the 1st-shell electron,
i.e. due to the electron's graviton being able to wrap itself about the 62,584
magnetons and permit the 62,584 speeding magnetons to pull the electron away
from its 1st-shell orbit.
εo
= the Electric Constant.
The Electric Constant = 8.854187818 x 10-12
Coulombs per Volt per metre length of conducting wire. This tells you how many protons will have lost
their electrons to the other end of a metre length of conducting wire when a
magnet of 1 Tesla strength is passed over the wire once every second, ( about 55
million electrons per Volt applied to the wire per metre length of wire ). At the atomic level,
the ionising volumes of the positively-charged protons at one end of the conducting wire and the negatively-charged
proton-volumes at the other end of the wire, give the term e2 in the Fig.1
equation. This term, i.e the Electric constant multiplied 13.605786
Volts squared times 8Pi, = the Electric Force, i.e. 1/2 the Coulomb force.
r2
= the 1st shell radius squared.
5.291785381 x 10-11 m squared
and ir is the unit vector ( from Maxwell's equations ), which
signifies that the electron, the proton magneton and the Coulomb force all have
resultant directions, e.g. all at right angles to one another. This means that the
electron dot, at the 3 o'clock position in Figure 1, is moving away from one into
the paper while the electron-surface membrane is spinning counterclockwise
upwards against the proton's magneton and the result of all these two-dimensional
planar force fields is that the proton's two-dimensional contact point on its
magneton, is rebounding from the electron membrane collision and pushing backwards
against the spinning electron inwards towards the centre of the proton as the electron
spin-couples with the proton magneton at the contact point and forces the
proton magneton to speed up to the velocity of light and become wound inward more.
A good idea to start the
physical discussion of the atom involves the electron-ground state-orbit.
Figure 1 depicts the spinning electron ( the small black dot to the right of the
arrows ), the spinning magneton ( spinning in the same direction as the electron )
and the 1836 stationary-electron proton ( to the left of the arrows ). The
spinning magneton rotates as well ( Oliver Heaviside Electrical Papers ) and is
re-absorbed and re-emitted continually by its attached-stationary electron
within the proton. This rotation is necessary, ( as classically ), any particle
which had no rotation would shear off and break from its connecting path ( i.e.
the next junction point of its master particle ), if it could not spiral into
the master-particle junction to avoid a 90-degree bend. " The stationary
electrons are held in place by the gravitons " could be the statement of the century
( Dunstan BRITGRAV4 2004 RAL ) This infers that nucleons do not move around
do not move around as Bohr thought, but are stationary ( as Walter Kaufmann
thought from his Gottingen university studies during the
"Gottingen years" in the early 1900s ).
The
electron in the picture, is travelling into the plane of the diagram and then
orbiting to the left behind the proton. It orbits within all of the 1st-shell
magnetons and spin-couples with them ( only 1 magneton is drawn into the
picture ), i.e. winding in the magneton ( which is trying to expand all the way
out to the molar radius, at some 7.347459 x 10-10 m ).
The electron in the picture,
has just been decelerated by the magnetons which it has contracted with and has
released a photon ( the photon is not shown ). The photon is spinning the same
way as the electron and the magneton in the diagram but it is travelling out of
the electron towards the viewer, i.e. at 180 degrees from and in the opposite
( linear ) direction to the electron. The magneton in the diagram has an orbital
diameter of 5.2917 x 10-11 m and forms the radius of the 1st shell
of the Hydrogen atom with this magneton-orbital diameter. The following
portable-document file-chart depicts how the
electron graviton would affect Hydrogen-atomic orbital-parameters. The magneton and
electron 1st-shell parameters are given in the 1st-Shell portable-document file
.
A good place
to start the mathematical discussion of the atom involves the term 8Pi2
me/h2. This is because the fundamental mass,
i.e. " the electron-body mass " and the angular momentum constant ( which Planck discovered ),
lead to and return from all other important atomic-level and Cosmic-level constants.
For example, the Cosmos mass multiplied by the square of the Planck length and divided by
the time of flight of one graviton around the Cosmos, will equal the Planck Constant,
( Please see the portable-document file on the Cosmic Momenta ).
This term involves the graviton, electron,
proton, magneton and photon reactions in the atom’s ground-state orbit, ( i.e.
where the free electron is decelerated at the molar radius from the velocity of
light to the 1st-Shell orbit at a lower velocity of C x F.S.C. ). Newton’s 1st
and 2nd laws apply to this phenomenon.
Me
= electron mass in (proton-bound) ground-state at velocity of c x F.S.C.
2Me
= electron mass in its free state at velocity of light
h = Planck’s
constant, Joules per frequency of particle cycle or energy per cycles of
the applied photon force ( or frequency ). This for example is just one half
the mass of the ground-state electron divided by the Hydrogen-maximum photon frequency.
13.60578693
Volts = magnetic and/or photonic forces per metre squared, although in the case of
the ground-state orbiting electron, the magnetic force of 13.605 Volts would be at
right angles to the photonic force of 13.605 Volts.
Multiplying this term by the 13.605786 Volts that it takes to free the
ground-state electron with magnetism or accelerate it using photons to the
free-electron state at the velocity of light, yields 2.22 x 1039 m-5.
This is equal to 1/e x 1st-shellradius2
e = electron charge and proton charge
1st-shellradius = ground-state
orbit-distance from the Hydrogen-proton's centre
Planck’s
constant often refers simply to the amount of energy there is in one cycle of a particle,
when Planck's Constant is measured in Joules per cycle ( as well as depicting angular momentum ).
e.g. in one photon-emission cycle. Hypothetically speaking, though it has not been
done before, dividing by C2 gives the mass per cycle of a photon
( i.e. a photon sub-particle ). Planck's constant can also be thought of as the change
in areal mass per time change.
The electron mass multiplied by the square of " the electron charge-volume divided by
the square of the 1st-shell radius " and divided by " the atomic time of 752.89 seconds ",
yields Planck's constant,
i.e. divided by the ratio of Pi multiplied by the square of the Fine Structure constant.
The " atomic time ", i.e. the hypothetical time of the neutron's beta-particle emission,
is found in several physics equations, e.g when manipulating Joules divided
by Watts or volume divided by Ampѐres. For example, the cube of " the electron charge-volume
divided by the square of the 1st-shell radius " divided by the " atomic time "
equals the 3.311 mAmpѐres volumetric flow of the 1st-shell magneton, i.e.
with a ratio of the Fine Structure constant squared ( divided by 4 ) being applied.
The 3.311 milliAmpѐres volumetric flow of the 1st-shell magneton,
is also a function of the Planck angular-momentum constant, i.e. when the Planck constant " h ",
is first divided by 4Pi, the electron-body mass and then multiplied by the so-called
" atomic distance " made by " the electron-charge volume per 1st-shell radius squared ".
The electron charge refers to the minimum-physical volume ( for the 62,584 magnetons which
emanate from within a magnet of 13.605 Tesla, to
occupy ). A magnet of 13.605 Tesla will have 13.605786 x 108
parallel magnetons emanate from a magnet which is one metre square by one metre high.
The electron's graviton will encircle 62,584 of these parallel magnetons
in order for the magnetons to ionise the Hydrogen atom when the
electron is orbiting at the 1st-shell radius in the ground state, i.e. at
absolute zero. This volume is determined by the molar volume ( per
molecule ) and the Faraday number. The molar
volume times the Faraday number = e.
The preceding equations give us the
Classical Grand Unified Field Theory, i.e. using Maxwell's Laws from Heaviside,
which can be applied to the Hydrogen Atom, based upon the classical Laws of
Newton, Galileo, Laplace, D'Alembert and Kepler.
Ask your physicist friends
what the electron charge is and very few of them will tell you that it is the
volume of magneton-space which causes the charge separation, i.e. this
volume of moving magnetons causes electrons to be attracted down the magnetons’
path toward a proton which has lost its own electron. This is of
course what we call electricity, but very few of your physicist-friends will
tell you how far this magneton path extends from atom to atom in a copper wire,
i.e. how does it overlap the next magneton ( cathode to anode ) pathway to cause
electricity in a copper wire?
Temperature is another
phenomenon which is much taken for granted, i.e. it is known as degrees Kelvin
but not by dimensional analysis ( Ampѐres squared per metre squared ). Wilhelm
Wien reported that a photon’s length ( in metres ) divided into the charge
volume times C2/5, yields the temperature of the atom which emitted
that photon. By dimensional analysis eC2/( 5 x the photon
length ) yields m4/s2. Yet no one ( including your physics friend )
will give units other than the Kelvin to temperature!
Sidgewick reported from
Oxford in 1950 that two protons will only combine to form the Hydrogen two
molecule if they both collide at the same place against the wall of the
container. This means that the travelling protons' collision area divided into their
positive charge current ( which pulls a bound electron away from its normal proton-bound pathway
between atoms in the wall ) is an example of what we call temperature.
If we multiply the amperage
of the Hydrogen atom by the amperage of the electron-charge volume in the wall
( which has pulled out the Hydrogen atom’s electron with its 62,584 magnetons,
i.e. the induction volume where the electron orbits circuitously within a
magnetic field continually ) and we divide by the 1st-shell radius of the
Hydrogen atom multiplied by the radius of our ionised electron in the induction
orbit, e.g. what we will call the simple–harmonic oscillator-orbit, then
we get the maximum temperature of Hydrogen, 31,603 degrees Kelvin. The
units are Ampѐres2/m2 and we find our atomic scaling
factors, which we shall find explained in the next attached article ( see
Heaviside's study of Gravitation via Maxwell's Laws.pdf below ).
By the Uniqueness Theorem, we
shall find that all of our atomic equations which are in dimensional units of
Ampѐres2/m2, can be related specifically to 31,603 degrees
Kelvin by atomic ( dimensionless ) scaling factors. This we can say classically
because temperature is due to an accelerated ( or decelerated ) charge, i.e. m s-2
x m3 = Ampѐres per metre squared. A decelerated free electron will
emit a photon and a photon's length determines the temperature.
Let us take another example
in our tour ( or as another might say, our guided walk around the classical
atom ). Our first example was 13.605 Volts x 8Pi2me/h2
= 1 / e x 1st-shell radius2. This, ( by the Uniqueness Theorem ) =
1 / Hydrogen-minimum photon-length5 and some scaling factors, i.e.
[ 4Pi ]5 / [ 62,584 x 103 x 17,275 x F.S.C.5 ] .
If we multiply this term,
( i.e. 2.22 x 1039 m-5
which is equal to 1/e x 1st-shellradius2 ), by our
31,603 Ampѐres2/m2 and the square of the Hydrogen-minimum
photon-length, we end up with 5.8494 x 1029 m/s2, i.e.
acceleration. It is well known from the Classical Atom ( Newton ) that
inertial acceleration equals gravitational acceleration, i.e. where velocity
squared divided by radius = mass times Newton's gravitational constant divided
by radius squared. The maximum inertial
acceleration of the electron and its spin in the ground state is equal to
C2/1st-shell radius. 5.8494 x 1029 m/s2
= C2/1st-shell radius and some scaling factors, e.g. the Fine
Structure constant, 8Pi and 10. The mass of the electron
times Newton's gravitational constant divided by the Planck Length squared,
will give the same answer, ( i.e. with factors of 8Pi and 10 being involved ).
A step-by-step rigorous proof for
this shall be presented later. We can now hypothsise that the coiled-spring-like
graviton, e.g. with a spring-coil cycle lentgh where a 2Pi single pitch coil length
will equal 2.426316079 x 10-12 metres in length ( while it is one coil diameter in width ).
This can be hypothesised as the turning of the graviton helical-spring coil-like shape while the
graviton is travelling at the velocity of light and impacting with the surface of the electron may be
the phenomenon which is causing the electron to spin ( as it decelerates ) and then possibly emit a photon.
Newton said that matter and
light were obviously interconvertible. We may hypothesise that the
decelerated-free electron emits light photons where the electron-dipole graviton units
pass through the membrane due to the electron dipole
graviton interacting much faster with the energy-absorption capability of the
electron membrane, i.e. interacting much faster than the membrane can absorb
the accelerated interchange. This is as much as 2 Belgian women researchers
( Betty and Yves see BRITGRAV4 Figure 1 ) and myself have implied. The gravitational constant and the
radius of the graviton, i.e. the Planck Length, must account for this. If we
multiply the electron mass by the gravitational constant, by the electron
charge, the square of the Fine Structure Constant and divided by the square of
the Planck length times 20 Pi, then we get the maximum temperature of Hydrogen,
( i.e. 31,603 degrees ).
If we multiply the electron
mass by the gravitational constant and divided by the square of the Planck
length, we can now say that the electron interacts with itself in the
ground-state orbit as the Coulomb-force magnetons of the Hydrogen proton force
the electron-dipole graviton to orbit the proton in the ground-state orbit and
couple with the back of the electron. We can hypothesise this because it explains
( classically ) why the electron does not spiral into the proton centre as Bohr
said it must, i.e. as it lost energy by charging the proton. Henri Poincaré
( Dernier Pensées 1910 ) warned us to pay attention to Walter Ritz when he
hypothesised that the electron must undergo spin-coupling, i.e. between a
" vortical-spinning electron " and a " vortical-spinning
magneton ". Henri Poincaré was a French Mathematical Physics Professor of
the highest order. It was Mr. Henri Poincaré who actually wrote the now-famous
equation e = mC2 ( 1897-8 Henri Poincaré ). Some of the international,
( i.e. nationalist ), press members have attributed this equation erroneously ( on
purpose ) to someone else. This person was forced to admit some 40 years after
the great Frenchman's death that it was Henri Poincaré who wrote E = mC2
and not him.
The equation actually implies
( as well ) that all energy changes ( i.e. according to the 1st law of
Thermodynamics ), occur with the second dimension as a function of the velocity of light. This means
that photon emission from electrons, magnetons, isotope radiation and breaking
radiation all involve surface-area equation terms, ( i.e. phenomena involving
surfaces of photons or electrons ). This second-dimensional term occurs
( jointly ) because the electron has forward ( linear ) velocity ( Newton's First Law ) as well as
sideways ( spin ) velocity ( D'Alembert's Principle ) at the same time. This is noted in the equation J = L
+ S, i.e. where the electron's " Joint " momentum is due to its combined
"Linear" momentum and its " Spin " momentum.
The electron's internal energy
is its Mass x C2. It has forward velocity components of up to " C " metres per second
and sideways velocity components of up to " C " metres per second. Since it has these two
components of velocity it must be a two-dimensional object and have a surface
that constitutes its shape, i.e. it must have a very small thickness and
volume. The electron surface ( membrane ) must have the two velocity components
moving in the surface membrane all the time except when the electron is
travelling at the velocity of light. This is because the forward-linear velocity-component
would be travelling faster than the velocity of light if it travelled at the
velocity of light within the electron when the electron was travelling at the
velocity of light, i.e. as a free electron. The electron would always have its
sideways-spin velocity component except when it was captured as a Beta-particle
( i.e. by the proton ) to form the neutron. If the electron had only two
dimensions to it, it would collapse when it collided with other electrons and
with atoms. It must have a three-dimensional component and this we hypothesise
to be the graviton.
The term MC2 stems
from Lazare Carnot's mathematical work, i.e. work on " mass times velocity ", during the French Revolution in the
1790s. Lazare Carnot was the father of Sadi Carnot, who is credited by Kelvin
and Clausius with founding the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics, the Law of entropy or
photon ( heat ) emission. It shows that you can get a lot from Science if you lop
off a few inbreeding-monarchs' heads, i.e. as Diderot noted for Cicero in
classical literature.
We can say all this due to
the result from the Classical Atom equation where meGo/PL2
= C2/1st-shell radius and a scaling factor, i.e. The Fine Structure
Constant. The inability of Bohr ( to use a graviton ) in order to explain why the
electron remained in a continual ground-state orbit ( i.e. according to
classical physics, as he wrote in the now infamous Rutherford Memorandum ), led
him to abandon classical physics. Bohr went on instead to invent ( the so-called
" early " ) Quantum Mechanics, which I quote as being “ totally
unnecessary ” in this report. It is interesting to note that Bohr could
not make use of the photon as a particle, i.e. since classical cause and effect
relations force one to use a graviton-photon reaction together. The following
article shows how we could have been saved if we had read Oliver Heaviside’s
original work on gravitation ( 1893 ). It is from a poster
presentation I gave at the 150th anniversary of James Clark Maxwell at Aberdeen
University.
The earlier-mentioned
portable document, " Heaviside's study of Gravitation via Maxwell's Laws.pdf ", portrays how all atomic
constants and fundamental equations can be depicted by the Heaviside-Maxwell
equations. These equations directly describe atomic phenomena or use the atomic scaling factors;
17,275 the ratio of the induction-orbit radius to the 1st-shell radius in the Hydrogen atom ( as well as
4Pi times the mass of the electron divided by Planck's constant, all in
dimensionless units ), 62,584 ( the number of magnetons required to ionise the
Hydrogen atom within the area defined by [ Pi x the induction-orbit radius2 ] )
and the Fine Structure Constant. The Fine Structure Constant is not well
defined numerically, ( see Wikipedia ). It is best defined numerically perchance,
as an element of a ratio. For example, the 1st Shell radius of Hydrogen divided
by the Fine Structure Constant and Pi2 yields the radius of one
ionised proton, i.e. ~7.3474 x 10-10 metre. The 1st Shell radius3
x 17,275 x 62,584 x 103 = the electron charge. The electron charge is
of course the electron-proton ionising-volume made up by the 62,584 parallel
magnetons, ( which are part of the 13,605 x 108 magnetons ), which
compose 13.605 Volts. 13.605 Volts can ionise the electron and the proton. The
electron-proton charging-volume divided by the Faraday Number equals the molar
volume of one ionised proton. If we divide the molar volume by 4Pi/3 and take
the cube root, we arrive at the radius of one ionised proton. If we then take
the cube root of 17,275 x 62,584 x 103/{( 4Pi/3 ) x the Faraday
Number }, we get ~13.88 or the reciprocal of The Fine structure Constant x Pi2.
Pi2 is important
here for it is the ratio of the molar-radius magneton-frequency due to its
velocity at C to the 1st-Shell magneton frequency due to its velocity at C x
The Fine Structure Constant.
The Fine Structure Constant
is called the fine-structure constant because it is used in equations to
explain why there are slightly different frequencies of red, for example, in
the second shell of Hydrogen, i.e. when an electron is caught by the 2nd shell
of a Hydrogen proton while it is orbiting the Hydrogen 3rd shell of another
proton. As a result, the Hydrogen proton yields up a band of slightly differing
lengths of the red photon, e.g. instead of the exact mathematically-predicted
photon-length for red. It is assumed then that a change in the radial position
of the electron, i.e. when it releases the red photon, causes the change in the
colour of red. A slight change in the vertical position of the electron, i.e.
as if one hit the proton on the North or South magnetic pole when the electron
is releasing the red photon, causes a very fine difference the spin velocity
and hence the hue of the colour released. This is described as the Hyper-fine
Structure Constant.
Photons are emitted when a
captured electron is decelerated to a lower-velocity orbiting-level which is closer to the
Hydrogen ( mathematical ) atomic centre. If the proton is spinning backwards or
forwards, or if it is moving away from the captured electron or towards it,
then the photon length will be slightly shorter or longer. This is due to the
time of photon release being slightly shorter or longer.
In Classical Physics, the
decelerated electron always has a slower velocity while its graviton is still constantly travelling at the velocity of light. This phenomenon forces the electron's incoming graviton to convert itself at a faster rate into the electron's surface membrane, e.g. the electric-convection
potential ( G. F. C. Searle 1897 Cavendish Laboratory ). The electron membrane cannot
contain this extra graviton-electric-convection potential-mass within its control volume ( Dunstan BRITGRAV 4 2004
Rutherford Appleton Laboratory ). The extra mass is emitted as a photon. Matter
and light mass are thus mutually interconvertible by the Law of reversibility
of Light ( Isaac Newton Cambridge ).
The graviton would be
modelled as a helical coil which attracts matter gravitationally as it pierces it mechanically, ( due to
its spring-coil " corkscrew-like construction " ). The graviton would operate mechanically by travelling
through the gaps between sub-nuclear static-electrons ( e.g. as when we walk upon the surface of a planet )
or by actually piercing the surface membranes of sub-nuclear static-electrons. As the graviton pierces a
surface membrane it would displace matter. This extra matter is the mass anomaly known in nuclear binding
( and it is equal in mass-energy terms to the radiation emitted when fusion occurs ). The equation by which
to model the graviton's volume ( for one helical cycle ) is connected
to the gravitational constant. As the previously-mentioned portable-document file shows, the
Planck length squared times Pi, multiplied by the graviton-cycle length gives
the graviton volume for one helical cycle. This volume multiplied by the graviton frequency squared and
divided by the mass of the electron, yields the gravitational constant ( with a
coupling factor of 2, or the Planck length squared times Pi yields a coupling factor of 2 from Planck's equation
of " the Planck length squared = h x G0 / 2PiC3 ).
BRITGRAV4 Figure 1: A typical classical/Quantum
membrane ( of specific curvature ) intersected by a graviton:
• would be under tension due to local momentum of
graviton. Yves Brihaye and Betti Hartmann have written on a negative tension
existing on the membrane, i.e. which would localise gravitons ( Yves Brihaye and
Betti Hartmann 2004 ).
• would emit a photon as the graviton absorption rate
would change as the electron decelerated ( Dick, R. and McArthur, D. M. E.
2002 ). Conversely, the electron membrane would accelerate as it reabsorbs
converted mass from a photon ( Walter Kaufmann 1902, 1906 ).
• would spin at a velocity equal to C minus its transverse
velocity, e.g. in " J = L + S = C ". The linear velocity increases while the spin velocity decreases equally.
During deceleration, the spin velocity increases while the forward velocity will always so decrease.
• would spin-couple with proton magnetons in a
vortical fashion ( Poincaré 1910, Ritz 1911 ), i.e. exhibiting k-space interactions causing
magneton contractions as described by the Fermi vector and the opposing Coulomb-force phenomena.
• would follow the continuity equation of the First
law of thermodynamics, i.e. the matter flowing into the electron from the
graviton must flow back out of the electron into the graviton, if no entropy
exists such as light emission.
The 1st-shell portable
document file and BRITGRAV4 Figure 1, should give an experimental idea on how
the dipole-graviton complex might interact within the Hydrogen Atom and what
the electron graviton might look like. A decelerated-free electron will have
its axial-spin velocity decelerated if the electron's axial-spin velocity and the electron's forward-orbital
velocity are related. The Fine Structure Constant seems to be the parameter
which relates electron-axial spin, forward-orbital velocity and proton-distance parameters with one another.
If the earlier-mentioned graviton does have a helical-cycle length which is directly proportional
to the gravitational constant, then there are 137 graviton cycles
within a single circumferential orbit of the electron in the 1st Shell. If the decelerated-free
electron is travelling at the velocity of light in the 1st Shell before it is
decelerated, then since it is travelling 137 times faster than the
normal-orbiting 1st shell electron, it will cover the distance in 1/137 the
time, i.e. the time which it takes the normal-orbiting electron to cover 1
cycle of the alleged graviton length.
This because there are 137 graviton-helical cycle-units ( end to end )
in a single orbit of the electron flight around the proton ( within the 1st shell ).
This is the equivalent of 1 orbital cycle
for the free electron. If the free electron is decelerated within 1 cycle time
of the graviton unit length, then the decelerated electron would have to absorb
the extra energy of graviton-electron membrane-conversion, i.e. a photon would
have to be emitted. The velocity of the spin-velocity changes which would occur within
the outer half of the graviton ( where it passes throught the electron ) would have
to be proportional to the electron and photon spin. This is a function of the spin change
in the decelerated-free electron ( from the velocity of light to a lower velocity and higher spin velocity )
due to the decreasing spin change in the proton's
magnetons as the proton decreases its own molar volume. This velocity decrease being converted
into spin increases, would cause graviton conversion rates in the electron membrane to
build up photon-releasing pressure until the free electron was decelerated from
the velocity of light to 1/137 the velocity of light in the 1st Shell ( and release a spinning photon ).
It is important to point out that it is the free-electron body which is decelerated and not its graviton.
The graviton must always travel at the velocity of light ( or it would become tangled up with itself ).
Let us look at an example. If
a free electron is decelerated to 3/4 of its speed from the velocity of light due
to its capture by the 2nd Shell of the Hydrogen atom, then it will have lost
1/4 of its forward velocity and release a photon which is 4 times as long as the photon
released when a free electron is decelerated to the 1st Shell. For a free
electron decelerated to the 3rd Shell, 4th Shell, 5th Shell and 6th Shell, the
electron will have lost 1/9 its ( forward ) velocity, 1/16 its ( forward ) velocity, 1/25
its ( forward ) velocity and 1/36 its ( forward ) velocity. The photons released will be
9 times, 16 times, 25 times and 36 times longer, i.e. 9 times, 16 times,
25 times and 36 times longer than a photon released by a 1st-shell electron.
This is shown by experimental data from Aangstrom, Rydberg and others.
The electron's ( spin ) velocity, on the contrary, should increase,
in order to compensate, i.e. in order to follow conservation of momenta laws,
( as well as conservation of angular momenta laws ). These phenomena can always be
explained classically. Please see the Electron-Proton Ionisation Levels.pdf. It will specifically relate
the successive ionisation levels of the proton with implicit and explicit equations, e.g. " J = L + S = C "
Let us look at another
example. From the 1st Column in our 1st-Shell pdf-file mentioned earlier, we
can see that the number of electron orbits in the single-hydrogen atom’s
ground-state orbit is exactly twice the Hydrogen-maximum photon
emission-frequency, i.e. twice 3.289 x 1015 Hz. From the same chart
the maximum 1st-shell magneton orbit frequency is twice the electron frequency,
i.e. 4 times the maximum Hydrogen photon-frequency. It follows that the last
magneton shell in ionised Hydrogen has an orbital frequency of Pi2
times the 1st-shell magneton orbital-frequency.
The emitted photons have frequencies are
which are determined by electron, photon and proton velocity differences. The velocities are
determined by the distances of the proton-magneton shells from the proton centre in
conjunction with the Fine Structure Constant in the solutions. For example if we multiply
the velocity, i.e. the velocity of the last
shell magneton in Hydrogen by the time of the last shell's magneton
orbit-cycle, then we get the distance, e.g. the molar radius times Pi. Multiplying
by the frequency ratio of the last shell of molar Hydrogen to the Hydrogen
maximum frequency, i.e. multiplying by 4Pi2, gives the Hydrogen-minimum
photon-length.
Let us
recapitulate what we have just said in the last two paragraphs. The length of the
photon released by the decelerated electron is due to the exact change in spin
between the free electron and its decelerated spin velocity, i.e. Classical
Mechanics and Classical Physics laws are upheld exactly. There are no
mysterious mathematical coefficients and so the Second Law of Thermodynamics
does not apply, i.e. the entropy itself is in the photon emission. Only the
First Law applies and is needed. The frequency change ( its ratio ) between the
last-magneton shell in molar Hydrogen and the Hydrogen-maximum frequency, ( i.e.
the photon frequency released in the 1st Shell ), determines the length of the
photon released. The outer magneton and the " free " electron, both travel
at or near the velocity of light. The electron spin increases from zero as the " free " electron
is decelerated towards the 1st shell, so the length of the released photon
will be shorter if the " free " electron spins faster for 1 electron-rim revolution.
If one had looked at Planck’s
Constant and could have divided by C2 Joules per kilogram, one
arrives at the amazing mass of a photon particle, i.e. some 10-51 kg
per cycle. If we multiply this by the frequency of the proposed graviton, e.g.
some 1020 Hz, then we arrive at the mass of the ground-state
electron. From our previous paragraphs on the mass of the electron, we can see
that the mass of a photon was a minimum of ¾ the ground-state electron ( for a
1st to 2nd shell transition ), 8/9 for a 1st to 3rd shell transition, 15/16 for
a 1st to 4th shell transition and so on up to the mass of the electron.
Assuming that the shell
distances are the same, then there would be about 64 shells from the 1st shell
out to the Hydrogen molar radius at about 7.34 x 10-10 metre out.
The smallest mass would then be about 1/632 – 1/642. This
is much larger than 10-51 kilogram per photon.
One arrives at the amazing
conclusion that the 10-51 kilogram must be the mass of a photon
particle, i.e. a sub-particle. This might be a way to depict Newton's so-called " corpuscle " particle.
Classically
speaking, i.e. according to the laws of Classical mechanics, a photon-cycle unit
would commence within a graviton-cycle unit, A photon-cycle unit would consist
of some 1020 individual " helical cylindrical-like wires "
of individual single twists. These helical-like twists
would all start near the front of the photon, i.e. within the start of a graviton-cycle unit
which is about to touch the inside of a decelerating electron. The twisted " helical-like "
photon/graviton sub-unit particles would end near the back of the
same photon. This geometry would allow the graviton/photon sub-units to overcome
the surface tension of the electric-convection potential of the electron, i.e. the
surface tension which keeps the electron surface intact.
This would be because the combined pressure of all of the 1020
some photon points in a single graviton cycle unit would pierce the
electric-convection potential of the electron membrane. In turn, the graviton
intersection points with the electric convection-potential-membrane would be
the propagation points for causing the graviton sub-units to turn inwards, i.e.
towards the centre of the electron. The graviton sub-units would run into each
other at the centre of the electron hemisphere and reverse direction, ( e.g.
their forward direction would gradually become a sideways direction and then
they would turn 90 degrees at the point where they collided at the very centre
of the hemispherical-electron surface ). The photon units would now emanate backwards
out of the electron but with the same spin direction as the electron. The
latter two data bits of information are well known in physics laboratories.
If some 1.2355 x 1020
photon sub-units compose a photon and the photon is released from within the
graviton, i.e. when the graviton collides into a decelerating electron, then
one can assume that the graviton-unit cycle-length is also composed of 1.2355 x
1020 photon sub-units. We can assume this as our previous discussion
explained classically how the decelerated-free electron released a photon when
its velocity was changed from the velocity of light to the Fine Structure
Constant times the velocity of light, ( e.g. as in the 1st shell orbit of the Hydrogen atom ).
If we have defined a
graviton-unit cycle-length as 2.4263 x 10-12 m, then this length
divided by 1.2355 x 1020 gives 1.9636 x 10-32 m as the
distance between photon sub-units overlapping, e.g. like fibres in a string.
From the “ Heaviside's study of Gravitation via Maxwell's Laws.pdf ” we defined the volume of a graviton unit
cycle as PL2 x Pi x 2.426 x 10-12 m. If we
divide this volume by 1.2355 x 1020 then we get a particle that is
2.426 x 10-12 m long with a radius of 1.4527 x 10-45 m.
In the
normal graviton the 1.2355 x 1020 photon sub-units must overlap one another, i.e.
as fibres do in a string. Classically speaking, this is the only manner by
which there can be coherence to a photon sub-particle graviton-unit.
The value of the radius of
the photon sub-unit particle is mathematically significant. If we multiply the
square of this 1.4257 x 10-45 m by 2Pi times the radius of the
universe ( i.e. 2Pi times the graviton orbital radius of 1.1784 x 1056 m ), we get
1.5626 x 10-33 m3. If we divide this volume into the
proposed overlapping distance of the photon sub-particle units, e.g. 2.426 x 10-12
m divided by 1.2355 x 1020 cycles, we get 4Pi m-2, e.g. a
steradian per m2. The metre squared term can be explained by the
derivation we get for the radius of the universe in the “ Heaviside's study of Gravitation via Maxwell's Laws.pdf ”, i.e. we get 4Pi x me x G0/1 m2 to be
dimensionally the reciprocal of the number of gravitons per metre square per
steradian to give 1 ms-2 acceleration. Multiplying the reciprocal of
eq. 17 ( i.e. in the “ Heaviside's study of Gravitation via Maxwell's Laws.pdf ” ), by C2 m2s-2 gives the radius of the
universe per steradian, e.g. in metres squared.
The reasoning for determining the radius of the Cosmos is as follows;
from Isaac Newton and Galileo, we know that the escape velocity squared, divided by the
acceleration and 4Pi, equals the radius of orbit around a central body.
The escape velocity from both an electron and the Cosmos ( for light ) equals the
velocity of light, C. The unit acceleration, due to gravity, for an electron at one
metre's distance, must equal the unit acceleration of the Cosmos mass at the Cosmos-radius
distance. The " 4Pi " term arrives here in this equation as the electron's graviton and hence
the electron's gravitational acceleration, is anisotropic, i.e. unlike the proton's gravitational acceleration,
as well as other solar and stellar bodies' gravitational acceleration,
so the " 4Pi " term is in the denominator.
The radius of the Cosmos gravitons must be the same as the radius of the electron graviton.
This follows from the " Cosmological Principles ".
This is because we assume that our methematical model represents the mechanical universe.
In our mathematical model ( our equations ) we can represent the mass of the universe
as a single point and write that the gravitons extend to the edge of the Cosmos.
In our mechanical model the gravitons of the universe extend from a central volume which is now expanding.
The gravitons may change the total graviton length of a particle occasionally, i.e
as the magnetons lengthen and absorb a few graviton-cycle lengths to do so. The lengths of
the gravitons for the electron and the Cosmos will mathematically be the same, i.e. especially for the
universe at its beginnings. This is so because we can then assume a mathematical model and see
what the equations hold in store for us.
Let us look at the equations now. The mass of the electron multiplied by the
Gravitational Constant and divided by the radius of 1 metre squared, will tell us the gravitational
acceleration due to 1 electron's gravitons over an area of one metre square, i.e. if we were to
force the isotropic gravitons in our mathematical model into one square metre ( one steradian )
which is a curved square metre one metre away from the electron. This constitutes a mini-Cosmos
of one electron and one graviton with its known acceleration.
At 2 metres distance the gravitational acceleration will be
1/4 times the distance at 1 metre's distance ( per steradian ). At 3 metres distance the gravitational
acceleration will be 1/9 times the distance
at 1 metre's distance ( per steradian ). At the Cosmos-radius distance, the gravitational acceleration
will be 1/R squared, times the gravitational acceleration at 1 metre's distance ( per steradian ).
The mass difference will be determined by a ratio of the mass of the universe to the mass of the
electron, which is proportional to the square of the Cosmos radius ( taking into consideration the terms
4Pi ( from Newton's equations ) and 4Pi squared ( from Kepler's equations ).
This is because the square of the escape velocity divided by the gravitational
acceleration of the Cosmos at the the Cosmos radius or divided by the gravitational acceleration of the
electron at one metre and divided by our 4Pi term will equal the universe radius.
Since the escape velocity for the electron is the velocity of Light and the escape velocity of the
Cosmos at the Cosmos radius is Light, then the square of the velocity of Light, ( C ), divided by the
gravitational acceleration of the electron at one metre and our 4Pi term, will equal the Cosmos Radius.
" C2 " divided by " [ 4Pi x MassElectron times G0 /
1 metre squared ] " = 1.178497606 x 1056 metres.
We can now test our answers in known Kepler and
Newton equations.
Kepler's equation " Radius cubed divided by the square of time of orbit " and " Newton's Gravitational
Constant ", " G0 ", when multiplied by Kepler's term " 4Pi squared ", will give the Cosmos mass. The square
of the orbit time will be equal to the square of " 2Pi times the Cosmos radius divided by the velocity of light ",
i.e. since the graviton travels at the velocity of light.
" 4Pi2 x R3 / T2 x G0 " now becomes
" 4Pi2 x R x C2 / x G0 " = 6.27658148 x 1084 kilograms.
The mass of the universe divided by the orbit time of " 2Pi times the Cosmos radius divided by the velocity of light ", multiplied by
the Planck-length squared, equates exactly with Planck's Constant.
6.27658148 x 1084 kg x PL2 / [ 2Pi x Radius / C ] = h
Our last rule is that the ratio of the mass of the universe to the mass of the electron, can now
be written as " The Cosmos mass divided by the Electron mass, equals the square of the universe radius multiplied by
16Pi3 ".
6.27658148 x 1084 kg / 9.109534001 x 10-31kg
= 16Pi3 x ( 1.178497606 x 1056 m )2
We shall now return from our short diversion on gravitation to our discussion on the possible unit
of matter.
The sub-particle may be the unit of all
matter, i.e. it may be Newton's " corpuscle ". It must flow through the graviton, the electron membrane, the
magneton and all parts of the proton and neutron. In fact, by the 1st Law of
Thermodynamics, it must commute through all nucleons via their gravitons and be
released as photons, whether by synchrotron emission, photon release, gamma-ray
emission of isotopes or braking radiation.
BRITGRAV4 Figure 2: A depiction ( for discerning
mathematicians) of the orbital-ground state-electron. The 9 graviton units
depicted ( not to scale ) are proposed to emanate out of the front of the
hemisphere, travel out to the edge of the Cosmos and circle back in behind the
back of the electron hemisphere. This depiction of the orbital electron is from the BRITGRAV4
Annual Conference at the Rutherford-Appleton Laboratory in 2004. Further research indicates that the
electron-rim thickness is more likely to be the electron radius/( the electron charge/the square of the 1st-shell radius ).
The graviton-cycle units ( not to scale ) should be approximately 2.42631 x 10-12 metre.
( See text or author for details )
The electron itself is the
most elusive little devil. As the table on inertial acceleration shows, e.g.
column 1 row 5, every time that one tries to put the electron radius, i.e.
7.415649545 x 10-17 m, into an equation, the coefficient 19 ( or 38 )
shows up. One thus gets the proton-centre radius ( 1.4809 x 10-15 m )
or the fusion-approach radius ( 2.8179 x 10-15 m ). The
fusion-approach radius of 2.8179 x 10-15 m, is the measurement from
the centre of the proton to the points where the ( non-orbital ) magnetons form the
fusion barrier. The fusion barrier is mathematically the value of velocity
which a nucleon must have to allow its own gravitons to pierce the
( non-orbital ) magneton layer at the fusion-approach distance and to pierce the
proton’s electrons. When the nucleon’s gravitons pierce the proton’s static
electrons, they displace a certain amount of static-electron mass, i.e. the
mass anomaly of fusion. This energy quantum is always equal to the mass-energy
of the radiation released from within the proton’s ( non-orbital ) magnetons,
e.g. when the approaching nucleon’s gravitons pierce the ( non-orbital )
magnetons’ barrier at the fusion-approach distance. Hence, most classical
equations have always described the fusion-approach radius of 2.8179 x 10-15
m as the electron radius when it is the radius of orbit of the proton's ( i.e.
the static electrons' ) magnetons. It is the closest point of approach of a
nucleon to another nucleon if the nucleons combined velocities are less than
the fusion-approach velocity. This is the Thomson cross-over section radius,
e.g. where Rutherford showed Helium atoms bouncing off Gold.
BRITGRAV4 Figure 3: A depiction of
the cut-off section of the equatorial plane in a hypothetical-proton centre. If
one packs 1836 static-electron spheroids in 6 concentric layers, then one
discovers that one has constructed a crystal. This crystal would have a flat-hexagonal
North-pole top and 6 trapezoidal sides sloping down to the equator
and 6 trapezoidal sides sloping down to the flat hexagonal South-pole bottom.
( see BRITGRAV4 Figure 4 )
BRITGRAV4 Figure 4: A depiction of the
hypothetical-proton centre. The magnetons emanating and returning vertically ( a
few shown in the diagram ) would be locked into their 1st-to-6th-shell radii by
the ( not shown ) horizontally outgoing and incoming gravitons (in the equatorial
plane ) of the proton-centre crystal. ( see PROTON STRUCTURE.pdf )
BRITGRAV4 Figure 5: A
depiction ( for discerning physicists ) of the neutron centre. The 9 graviton
units depicted ( in figure 2 emanating out of the front of the
double-hemisphere ) are now counted as 18 i.e. 9 outgoing gravitons and 9
incoming gravitons make 18 in total. This allows the static-spheroidal
electrons in the neutron centre to obey the close-packing laws for spheres. The
arrows at the graviton unit ends indicate the direction of the 18 gravitons
which connect the central beta-particle to the surrounding static electrons.
( See text for details )
BRITGRAV4 Figure 5 depicts
the absolute centre of the neutron together with the first shell of the Neutron
( and proton ), i.e. the 18 surrounding static spheroids which form around the
central blue spheroid according to the close-packing laws for spheres. The
central blue spheroid represents the Beta-particle which Walter Kaufmann proved
to be the electron, i.e. from some Radium which he got from Marie Curie in
1901. The centre-to-centre distance from the central-blue static-electron to the
surrounding 18 static electrons is 1.5 electron radii. The central-blue
beta-particle and the six-surrounding blue static-electrons are all in the
equatorial plane of the neutron ( and proton ). The orange-electron spheroids lie
above the equatorial plane and the green-electron spheroids lie below the
equatorial plane. As the static electrons are 1.5 radii apart, i.e. due to the
close-packing laws for spheres, the 1st shell is 1.5 radii from the centre, the 2nd shell
is twice that, the 3rd shell is thrice that, the 4th shell is quadruple that, the 5th shell
is quintuple that and the 6th shell is 6 times this ratio. This can tend to explain how
Balmer derived the formula for explaining the ratio between photons released from the
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th shell electron captures and the inverse square law for distances
( e.g. as explained earlier regarding photon-length changes and electron shell velocities ).
The neutron structure follows
the Proton structure depicted in the Proton.pdf and BRITGRAV4 figures 3 and 4.
The incoming and outgoing graviton units attached to the static spheroids in
BRITGRAV4 Figure 3, i.e. in the equatorial plane of the proton, are proposed to
form a mechanical lock on the 1st shell, 2nd shell, 3rd shell, 4th shell, 5th
shell and 6th shell magnetons of the proton. This mechanical lock is proposed
to be the phenomenon which holds the 6 magneton shells in their lateral positions and
helps maintain their radial distance from the proton centre. It is interesting to
point out that the sub-protonic muon particle still has Hydrogen-like
shell-drop emissions, i.e. even after it is broken down from a proton-cosmic
ray collision. This means that the magneton shells of the muon are still at
the same radial distance ( from the muon centre ) as the proton's magneton shells
are within the Hydrogen-proton's centre, i.e. before the Hydrogen proton is broken
down into the short-lived Muon.
The absorption of an electron
by the proton ( e.g. the white central spheroid in BRITGRAV4 Figure 3 or the
blue beta-particle in BRITGRAV4 Figure 5 ), is proposed to be the phenomenon
which causes the contraction of the proton magnetons to the fusion-approach
distance, i.e. 2.1879 x 10-15 metre instead of the molar or atomic radius. The magneton-collapse
phenomenon is proposed to be due to the central beta-particle being able to
re-route the incoming and outgoing-graviton units ( in a manner which prevents
the equatorial-plane graviton-units from forming a mechanical lock on the
proton's six magneton shells ).
The re-routing of the
proposed sub-atomic matter-corpuscles ( see the earlier section on the graviton
sub-units ) could also help to explain how a proton magneton could expand and
contract radially, ( i.e. centrifugally from the proton's south magnetic-pole ),
without making the proton heavier or lighter. If the proton centre could absorb
sub-atomic matter-corpuscles from the graviton flow, ( through the static-spheroids surface-membrane and
then into the magneton ), then the phenomenon of mass commutation via sub-atomic
matter-corpuscle flow could explain experimental recording of magneton
characteristics. These sub-atomic matter corpuscle-transfers could occur in
quantum units, i.e. in much the same manner as photons account for mass
commutation in super-atomic corpuscle-units.
Using our model, e.g.
BRITGRAV4 Figures 1 and 4, we can attempt to explain what phenomena occur
during beta-particle capture. The incoming beta-particle ( BRITGRAV4 Figure 1 )
will have its gravitons penetrate the North-pole ( depicted at the top ) of the proton in
BRITGRAV4 Figure 4 and travel inside the proton, ( along the North pole-South
pole axis ) while the gravitons up to this moment, travel parallel to the
North-to-South polar axis and exit at the South pole ( depicted at the bottom of the
proton, e.g. BRITGRAV4 Figure 4. As the beta-partcle travels along the inside
( hollowed ) north-south polar axis, ( see BRITGRAV4 Figure 4 ), the beta-particle
and the proton begin to react with one another, i.e. via their mutual-graviton interaction-potentials.
The 6 magnetons depicted in
BRITGRAV4 Figure 4 form the 6th magneton shell of the proton and there are 6
shells ( 5 not shown ) where a further 6 magnetons ( per proton shell ) form the 6
shells. This makes 36 magnetons in all, which mathematically leaves 1800
magnetons to form the fusion-approach barrier at a distance of twice the proton-centre
radius ( from the proton centre ). Stellar fusion occurs within the radius circumscribed
by the stellar magnetic halo, i.e. the centre distance from the stellar-polar haloes.
The 36 magnetons, those which form the 6 shells of the
proton, will contract their orbital radii upon Beta-particle capture by the proton's centre.
The magneton flow must be diverted by the phenomenon of Beta-particle capture.
The logical place for the flow to be diverted to would be the graviton/electron
surface area on the incoming Beta-particle. Since the graviton has been estimated to be
4/7 the mass of the electron, i.e. 9 x 32,444.608 eV, then if the graviton would be found to
be 4 times the mass of the magneton, then 4 x 9 Beta-particle graviton-units, would equal 36 magneton units.
An experiment needs to be done to corroborate this hypothesis.
It is
hypothesised that when the beta-particle’s gravitons exit from the South pole
( as depicted above ) they interact with these hypothesised 1800 magnetons and
are bent outward ( so that they reverse direction and travel inside the orbit of
the 1800 magnetons at the fusion-approach distance ). This would tend to force
the beta-particle’s graviton-surface contact point to be reversed also and the
graviton-surface contact-points would tend to be forced backwards towards the
central-magneton rim of the electron ( see BRITGRAV4 Figure 2 ).
At the time of beta-particle
penetration ( into the North pole of the proton in BRITGRAV4 Figure 4 ) the
gravitons of the static electrons in the northern half of BRITGRAV4 Figure 4
would tend to enter into the back of the electron ( BRITGRAV4 Figure 2 ) and tend
to invert the inner-electron hemisphere. This hypothesised inversion of the
electron’s inner hemisphere would tend to force the incoming graviton’s surface
contact points out toward the electron’s magneton rim ( i.e. where they would be
in confluence with the outgoing-graviton contact-points of the electron
surface ). At the time of beta-particle penetration ( into the centre of the depicted
proton in BRITGRAV4 Figure 4 ) the gravitons of the static electrons in the
southern ( lower ) half of the depicted proton in BRITGRAV4 Figure 4 would tend to enter into the front of the
electron ( BRITGRAV4 Figure 2 ) and tend to keep it hemispherical.
The rotatory flow of
sub-atomic corpuscles about the graviton-contact points in the electron surface
will tend to find the lowest entropy ( the mathematical point of focal
stability ), i.e. the lowest entropy in classical thermodynamics. It was
Heaviside ( Electrical Papers ) who first had the idea that the magnetons might have
a rotatory flow as well as an orbital flow ( so we use his word rotatory instead
of any other word). This convergence of sub-atomic corpuscular flow of the
gravitons ( about the equator of the now-formed beta-particle spheroid ) will
tend to disrupt the electron-magneton rim ( BRITGRAV4 Figures 1 & 2 ). The
sub-atomic ( circumferential ) corpuscular flow in the beta-particle rim will be
forced temporarily inside the beta-particle spheroid by the re-arrangement of
the gravitons, i.e. from a dipole flow in ( BRITGRAV4 Figures 1 & 2 ) into an
isotropic flow in ( BRITGRAV4 Figure 5 ).
The lowest entropy state for
the Hydrogen proton ( in classical thermodynamics ) is an isotropic-gravitational
state ( field ) combined with a dipolar-magnetic state ( field ), i.e. as we know
exists in the ionised proton classically. The magneton of the beta-particle
would have to emanate out of the south pole of the neutron ( i.e. parallel to
the other magnetons of the neutron ) and would have to travel out around the
neutron. The beta-particle magneton would now have to be re-absorbed by the
neutron at its North pole and return to the beta-particle. The other manner
in which the beta-particle magneton could be viewed is in the following fashion.
The beta-particle magneton might sit just above the surface of the beta-particle at
the neutron centre, i.e. some sort of beta-particle restructuralisation of its surface must occur.
The manner in which to test between the two experimental hypotheses is to test for
anisotropic versus isotropic-neutron spins, i.e. due to the presence or absence of
the beta-particle magneton at the neutron surface. This is the same
type of test which might be made to test for the gravitational isotropy of the proton
versus the gravitational isotropy of the neutron, i.e. due to the gravitising
restructuralisation of the proton/neutron change when the gravitising electron is
captured by a proton.
There is usually no emission of
energy ( other than an electron neutrino ) in beta-particle ( K-Shell ) capture, ( i.e. if the atom is proton-rich
and if there is an energy difference between the
new and old atoms of less than the rest-mass energy of the free electron ).
See [ http://radiopaedia.org/articles/beta-decay and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_decay ].
So by Maxwell’s laws, the mass-energy of the
beta-particle must be added to the proton. This is accounted for by the extra
mass of the neutron, e.g. the neutron has a mass of approximately 2 and 4/7
electron masses more than the proton. 2 of these electron masses are accounted
for by the ground-state mass of the electron and the unbound state of the free
electron, i.e. its classical mass increase due to classical-photon capture
( Kaufmann 1906 ). The 4/7 times the mass of the ground-state electron would be
accounted for by the absorption of the beta-particle’s graviton units by the
rest of the static spheroids in the proton. Since, classically, the ability of
nucleons to absorb gravitons during fusion is due to the ability of nucleons to
emit radiation ( from within the 1800 magnetons ) during fusion, there would
have to be a 4/7 mass increase due to there being no radiation emission during
beta-particle capture. Radiation emission during normal beta-particle capture
will occur if the absorbed electron has a greater energy than twice the rest-mass energy,
i.e. if the energy difference between the old and new atoms ( nucleons ) is greater than
1.022 mega-electronVolts. The other way to account for the increased mass of the neutron,
i.e. when compared with the proton, is to state that
restructuralisation of the graviton matrix within the neutron ( see BRITGRAV4 Fig. 5 )
causes the extra-mass anomaly. This means that the gravitons within the neutron
are now penetrating the neutron matter, whereas before these specific neutron
gravitons were penetrating free space within the neutron.
The fusion of a proton to a neutron is slightly different from the Beta-partical fusion of an electron to a proton and progresses classically.
A proton approaching a neutron in our Sun will have its outgoing gravitons' positions and its incoming
gravitons' co-ordinate positions static, i.e. regarding a specific relation between the proton's travelling-gravitons
and the proton's surface-membrane electrons. The proton's and neutron's magnetons, ( i.e. at the fusion-approach distance ),
will be compressed by each other and fixed into static Euclidean positions by the fixed vector positions of the gravitons.
The gravitons will also be in fixed static Euclidean co-ordinate positions within a certain specific coherence length, i.e.
a length which is measured from the surface of the proton outwards towards the proton's molar radius. ( SLAC proved the structure of the proton is composite in the 1960s,
i.e. when I was there as a student holding a 2" diameter piece of copper pipe in my hands wondering what the Universe was all about ). This phenomenon is similar to the coherence length in front of a LASER.
The principle of lowest entropy will apply, ( from Clausius ) and the gravitons of each particle will have to cut through
each other's magnetons to reach a new-stable point of lowest entropy ( Clausius ). The gravitons cutting of the magnetons flight path
( at this close range ) will force the magnetons to release energy, ( i.e. in the form of photons ) and this energy may equal
the mass-energy of the radiation which is emitted, e.g. which may equal the " mass-anomaly " ( mass-energy radiation-value ) commonly
found in fusion experiments. The value of the mass-anomaly radiation energy may equal the value of the mass-anomaly energy,
which will equate with the mass energy of the number of fusion gravitons involved in the proton-neutron fusion phenomenon,
i.e. 34.5 will be the number of units of gravitons at 32,444.608 eVolts each. This equates with 34 gravitons from the proton in the horizontal
planes between the 2 nucleons and 35 graviton units in the horizontal planes between the 2 nucleons from the neutron.
From BRITGRAV4 Figures 1 and 2; for the orbiting electron, from BRITGRAV4 Figures 3, 4 and 5,
for the stationary Beta-particles and electrons within the atom, we can see that the
inflowing-outflowing gravitons and magnetons must interact with the membrane-surface, which we call the
electric-convection potential of G.F.C. Searle ( Cavendish 1897 ). From Robert Turnbull ( Glasgow
1979 ), we know that the proton binding energy is 1.072229 GeV. This equates to 32,444.608 eV
per graviton unit in BRITGRAV4 Figures 2 and 5, e.g. 32,444.608 eV times 18 graviton units
times 1836 electron masses equals 1.072229 GeV. 32,444.608 eV equates to 4/63 the rest-mass energy of the
ground-state electron, i.e. 511,002 eV. Magnetons are known to lengthen and contract,
i.e. in the ionised proton and in the solar-magnetic field. It is now proposed that the lengthening of
magnetons can be explained by the conversion of graviton-unit cycle-lengths into magneton-unit
cycle-lengths, i.e. through diversion of the Newtonian-corpuscular atomic sub-units through the
electric-convection potential of G.F.C. Searle.
Our figures show us what the atom could be like, i.e. for simple Hydrogen and the neutron.
So what do Helium, Lithium and the rest of the non-radioactive atoms look like, i.e. in all their elemental
Fire and Brimstone, as the good devil no doubt intended? In the 1920s and 1930s it was ( classically )
thought that the various and different atoms consisted of stacks of Helium atoms or Lithium atoms placed upon one another,
( but within the fusion-approach distance of 1.5 times 2.8179 x 10-15m ).
If you can imagine 2 Deuterium atoms fused together so that the 4 nucleons are equidistant from one another,
( all lying in the same plane ), with their South poles pointing towards one another, then you can imagine Helium.
With Lithium, the protons are at the tips of the equilateral triangle and the neutrons
are between the protons, all lying in the same plane.
Beryllium would consist of 2 Helium ( Alpha particle ) atoms stacked on top of one another,
i.e. at right angles to one another.
Boron would consist of a Lithium atom fused to 2 protons, i.e. 1 proton would lie on
top of the Lithium particle and the other proton would lie beneath the Lithium-particle equatorial-plane,
towards the centre of the Lithium-particle but on its north-to-south polar-axis.
Carbon would thus be 3 alpha particles stacked on top of one another,
again at right angles to one another. This is evidenced by the glucose molecule where the so-called
" carbon chair " molecule predicates that the 4-electronic bonds of the organic-carbon molecule
must come from the 4-stationary protons which lie on the top and bottom of the triple-alpha particle-stack,
as the central pair of carbon protons are known not to take part in molecular-electron bonding with organic-carbon molecules.
At this point we can see that Bohr was wrong in thinking that nucleons moved
around within the nucleus as we can see that there is no proof of this, i.e. the proton ( molecular )
bonds in organic carbon do not move ( or switch position at Absolute Zero ). We can also see why Bohr was
wrong, i.e. Bohr did his MSc on surface tension in water molecules and as a professor he also did
experiments on water molecules, so the idea for moving nucleons came from this.
We can see that by probing totally-ionised elements with laser photons within the coherence length,
( i.e. the length from the end of the laser to where the photons are still in known positions
with respect to one another ), we can attempt to detect the constant-graviton density between nucleons.
From Britgrav4 figures 3 to 5, we can hypothesise that the nuclear-binding energies
between the static nucleons are determined by multiples of 68 graviton units, For example the energy required
to remove the neutron from the proton in Deuterium is 68 times 32,444.608 eVolts. The energy required to remove
the neutron or the proton from Helium 3 is 3 times 68 x 32,444.608 eVolts. The energy required to remove the neutron
or the proton from Helium 4 is 9 times 68 x 32,444.608 eVolts. The total binding energy of the nucleons in Helium 4
is then 13 times 68 x 32,444.608 eVolts, ( i.e. 28.681 Mega-eVolts ).
32,444.608 eVolts is the energy per metre cubed, of 1 graviton unit, which was derived classically
from " proof by construction " due to classical experiments on the break-up energy of the proton,
( e.g. due to hitting the proton with a photon of the Compton Length ). We can now move on towards
discussing the electron's radius, together with its internal graviton.
The electron radius is one of the most mis-understood, e.g. mis-interpreted
measurements in Classical Physics. It was thought to be 2.8179 x 10-15
m from the equation " e2 x The Magnetic Constant per electron mass per
4Pi steradian ". This would make it larger than the proton, i.e. an " impossible "
idea, since we have just seen from the earlier discussion that the electron
must fit inside the proton, ( as a neutron ( sub )-particle ) . The electron was also
thought of as a point charge, i.e. a point charge has no metric width or diameter, much
less 2.8179 x 10-15 m. In 1906 Planck was studying the
electron-mass uptake, which increased the electron velocity as mass was absorbed by
the electron due to photon aborption ( as Walter Kaufmann had
proved in 1906 ). Henri Poincaré pointed this out in 1910 ( Poincaré " Dernier Pensées " 1910 ),
but the world refused to take note and went on to follow Bohr with his " Rutherfod memorandum " in 1913.
Planck wrote that it would be important to know the ratio of the electron mass times its
velocity to its radius. This would give the mass flow of the electron
rim and hence by the continuity equation, this would give the mass flow of the
electron surface ( G.F.C. Searle 1897 ) and the electron graviton throughout the entire electron,
This would be due to the 1st Law of Thermodynamics. The mass
flow times the volumetric flow per metre would give the energy of the electron,
" kg s-1 x m2 x s-1 = Energy " in units of
Joules.
PART IV: THE EQUATIONS FOR THE ELECTRON-SHELL
SURFACE THICKNESS AND ITS CONSEQUENT GRAVITON-MAGNETON INTERACTIONS
[ Mec / Eq. 1 ] x h / Me
= Me c2 x [ 4Pi x 103 / 17,275 x F.S.C.3 ]
( Planck Mass-flow Equation )
We may now see that the Planck
Equation can be set equal to the Poincaré-Energy Equation " energy in Joules = Me x c2
" from Henri Poincaré in 1898. His thoughts are a progression of the work of Lazare Carnot
in the 1790s, i.e. concerning " mass times velocity ". If we multiply the Poincaré Equation by 2Pi
then the energy of the electron radius and spin can be set equal to the energy
of 1 graviton cycle, i.e. the force of the graviton ( 0.212 N ) times the length
of one graviton-cycle unit
Mec2 x 2Pi =
[ Me2 x G0 / PLength2
] x 2.4263 x 10-12m
(Poincaré-energy Equation)
Equations concerning the
electron radius are mostly applied to reality by considering the electron
torque, i.e. due to its physical spin. When we consider the electron in the
ground-state orbit, e.g. as in Figure 1, we can see it depicted as spinning in
the same direction as the 1st shell magneton inside the orbit of the 1st shell
magneton. Hence the electron radius and torque are lost within the measurement
of the 1st shell radius, i.e. the far greater value of 5.291783 x 10-11
m.
However, when the electron is
in the induction-state orbit of 9.1427 x 10-7 m, it is spinning on
the outside of the 62,584 magnetons and it is spinning against the direction of
the magnetons. The electron radius and its spinning torque, i.e. due to its
self-gravitation, become very important here mathematically.
The electron, named for Electra, the daughter of Agamemnon,
i.e. for her amber hair, and known from the ancients, onwards, to electrify men, their thoughts and science,
may be solved finally by us, e.g. by breaking the riddle of the Fine Structure Constant
and the proof by construction, ( by experiment ), of the electron radius, orbit as well as its thickness.
If we multiply the electron
radius by the electron-self-gravitating force, we have Newton-metres in Torque.
This value should be equal to the force of the 62,584 magnetons and their
electron-orbit radius of 9.1427 x 10-7 m. Instead of their 1:1
ratio, we find a coupling constant whose value is equal to the electron charge
divided by the 1st-shell radius-squared per unit length, i.e. e/1st shell
radius2 times unit length. There is also a small ( coupling )
co-efficient involved, i.e. 1.000082877. This coupling co-efficient is equal
to: 1 + ( 19 divided by the Fine Structure Constant divided by Pi, divided by
107 ).
We can proceed now with another example, i.e. from the " How to classically describe conjectures.pdf ".
The now-known force of the electron graviton
is 0.212016694 Newtons, i.e. ( MElectron2 x G0 / PL2 ).
The known orbit radius of the ground-state electron in the Hydrogen Proton changes from
5.291785381 x 10-11 metres to 9.142058723 x 10-7 metres radius
when an external magnetic-field flux of 62,584 magnetons is applied,
i.e. with its known magnetic-field flux force of 3.006084656 x 10-13 Newtons.
( Please see Fig. 2 )
The ratio, ( i.e. using the lever rule from Democritus ), which we look for from our analytical equation is the
ratio of the force between the electron graviton ( which causes the known phenomenon
of “ zeta-pinching “ on the 62,584 magnetons in the externally-applied magnetic-field flux )
and the force of the 62,584 magnetons on the electron, which pulls the electron out of
the ground-state Hydrogen-proton orbit into the induction-state orbit and onward
toward any locally-placed cathode. ( Please see Fig. 3 ) This pulling outwards on the electron graviton,
( which displaces the electron from its ground-state orbit and pulls it away and upward
in a continually circling-corkscrew spring-coil like orbit ) is due to the Newtonian equal
and opposite reaction. The reaction of the 62,584 applied magnetons to “ zeta-pinching “
of its normally-straight parallel path, pulls the electron out and away from the
Hydrogen-proton orbit due to the pressure of the angle of the slope from the momenta
of the 62,584 magnetons on the electron graviton, i.e. as the electron graviton
encircles the normally-straight parallel magnetons several times ( until the magneton path ends within
the specific proton from which the magnetons emerged or diverges ).
The force of the graviton on the electron internally equals the reaction force of the
graviton on anything externally, ( Poincaré on MC2 and Isaac Newton on equal
and opposite reaction ). This is the pressure induced on both the magnetons and the electron graviton,
which commences virtually, from where the
the normally-straight magneton path starts to slope due to the " zeta-pinching " force
of the electron graviton encircling and tightening upon the magneton path. The known force of the electron graviton is 0.212016694 Newtons,
( i.e. ( MElectron2 x G0 / PL2 ).
The known orbit radius of the ground-state electron in the Hydrogen Proton changes from
5.29178538 x 10-11 metres to 9.142058723 x 10-7 metres radius when
an external magnetic-field flux of 62,584 magnetons is applied. The ratio which we look
for is then the ratio between the force of the electron graviton and the force of the
62,584 magnetons, i.e. 0.212016694 Newtons divided by 3.006084656 x 10-13 Newtons,
which is equal to 2000 divided by the Fine Structure Constant to the 4th power.
If we cross multiply this ratio ( i.e. by using the " lever rule " ), by the known induction-state orbit radius,
then we should have the effective radius ( length ) of the electron surface where the
electron graviton reacts with equal force internally to the electron graviton's equal
external force of 0.21201669 Newtons.
9.142058723 x 10-7 metres divided by
“ 2000 divided by the Fine Structure Constant to the fourth power “,
equals 1.29620936 x 10-18 m. This is exactly the same thickness or metric length
which we find for the electric-convection potential thickness of G. F. C. Searle.
Please see the portable-document file on G. F. C. Searle for this and other parts
of this work for further confirmation on this.
One can find another example with another ratio, i.e.
The F.S.C.4 / 4Pi ratio, appears when comparing the Gravitational-spring Constant with the known
Atomic-spring Constant. The Graviton force of 0.212016694 Newtons divided by the Planck-length squared
and the radius of the Cosmos, i.e. 1.17849076 x 1056 metres,
equates with the force per metre cubed and the Joules per metre squared, 1,556.916 J m-2, when
multiplied by unit area and the F.S.C.4 / 4Pi ratio. The Graviton force, 0.212016694 Newtons, multiplied by the
of one-graviton cycle length, 2.42631607 x 10-12 m equates with Me x C2
x 2Pi Joules. Joules per Hertz should equate with the angular-momentum of the Planck Constant. So,
0.212016694 N x 2.42631607 x 10-12 m x the F.S.C.4 / 4Pi ratio, equates with
the Planck Constant multiplied by 1.75188047 x 1011 cycles. 1.75188047 x 1011 cycles,
divided by 104, is the exact ratio between the area occupied orthogonally by the 62,584
induction-state magnetons, i.e. before the Zeta-pinching phenomenon commences, to the area occupied
orthogonally by the 62,584 induction-state magnetons, after the Zeta-pinching phenomen occurs. Further to
this, if this value, 1.75188047 x 1011 cycles, is divided by the radii ratio of the induction-state
electron-orbit ratio to the electron's 1st-shell ground-state orbit and multiplied by the Fine Structure Constant squared
divided by 2, then the new value equates with the 3.808571 x 1011 Hertz of the electron after it
is induced into the induction-state orbit by the 62,584 magnetons, i.e. 13.605786 x 108 magnetons
per metre square x 4.5998361 x 10-5 m2 equates with 62,584 magnetons.
1.75188047 x 1011 cycles x h / F.S.C.2 equates with 13.605786 eV x e Cbs
1.75188047 x 1011 cycles / 0.4.5998361 = 3.808571 x 1011 Hertz
Conversely, 3.808571 x 1011 Hertz x 0.45998361 / H Ampѐres m-1 =
1.75188047 x 1011 m-2 or 5.70815197 x 10-12 m2
5.70815197 x 10-12 m2 equates to the Hydrogen-minimum photon length multiplied by
the induction-state radius, i.e.
5.70815197 x 10-12 m2 = 9.112694287 x 10-8 m x 9.1420587 x 10-7 m2 x 2 / F.S.C.
1.75188047 x 107 cycles, is derived from the electron-induction state volume to
electron-mass ratio, multiplied by the magnetic constant per 4PI steradian and multiplied by unit area, the
62,584 magnetons and divided by 2Pi, equates with a value with no metric units. Multiplying the value by
the unit magneton " H ", in Ampѐres per metre after removing the term " unit area ", now equates with Hertz.
4Pi x 10-7 kg m-5 x 62,584 x e x unit H m2-s-1 / 8Pi2 x Me
= 1.75188047 x 107 cycles
One can now multiply the atomic-spring constant, 1,556.91066 J per square metre, by the
square of the graviton-cycle length, 2.42631607 x 10-12 m squared, to perhaps equate with other atomic terms.
1,556.91066 J per m2 x [ 2.42631607 x 10-12 m ]2 =
9.16554822 x 10-21 Joules.
9.16554822 x 10-21 Joules / 8Pi2 h, = 1.75188047 x 1011 cycles.
So we may see here and now that the electron's graviton has a
mathematical effect on atomic equations, i.e. due to its
classical-mechanical force on known-atomic and sub-atomic phenomena.
For example, the known atomic Spring Constant, 1,556.91066 J per m2,
when divided by the square of the total spin-coupling length per second,
[ 3.0657233 m s-1 ]2, equates exactly with the mass
of the ground-state electron, 9.109534001 x 10-31 kg, divided by
the square of the mechanical radius of the electron, [ 7.41564954 x 10-17 m ]2.
1,556.91066 J per m2 / [ 3.0657233 m s-1 ]2 equates with
9.109534001 x 10-31 kg / [ 7.41564954 x 10-17 m ]2
When attempting to insert the electron radius into any equation to test for or to see
how the mechanical radius relates to the specific electron-surface membrane thickness, i.e. in order to test
what can can happen with atomic relationships, simply insert the
following term
er x 1.000082877
x 1st shell radius2 x unit length x e-1
= 1.29620937 x 10-18 metre
(1)
and proceed with your physics equation. If one thinks of the electric-convection
potential as a thickness, i.e. instead of being a real radius, then one can define its
metric dimension as the thickness per unit radius. This will explain why the metric dimension of
thickness is not apparent in Eq. 1, but it is often found in other equations
( Please see the following portable document file for the galactic derivation and the
G.F.C. Searle portable-document file for the atomic and sub-atomic usage ).
The electron radius itself, i.e. the classical-mechanical radius, which we descrtibed in the
last equation in the Electron spin-coupling length portable-document file, is much more easly found
by conventional, e.g. known, physics equations, where the the classical-mechanical radius
equates with the electron-graviton force multiplied by the total spin-coupling length per
second ( in the Hydrogen atom ground state ) per 511,002.575 eV electron rest-mass
energy per metre cubed per unit maximum velocity of the magneton per unit " atomic
distance " of the magneton. Thus we can have
eR = [ Me2 x G0 / PL2 ] x 3.065723364 m s-1 / [ 511,002.575 eV x C x ( e / 1st shellR2 ) ]
7.415649549 x 10-17 m = 0.212026694 N x 3.065723364 metres s-1 / [ 511,002.575 eV x C x 57.21501729 m ]
The Electron spin-coupling length, i.e. the term 3.065723364 m s-1 equates with the
velocity of light, C, multiplied by the cube of the Fine Structure Constant and divided by 38.
It is cryptically hidden within the Planck Constant, where h / 4Pi Me divided
into the magneton-induction number of 62,584.39036 Ampѐres per metre and then multiplied
by the Fine Structure Constant to the 4th power, equates with the term 3.065723364
m s-1, divided by the the correction coefficient 1.000082877.
The proton-centre radius to electron radius ratio, i.e. 19,
is also cryptically hidden within the Planck Constant, where h / 4Pi Me divided
by the " atomic length " for the induction-orbit magneton " e / 1st shellR2 "
and divided again by the square of the Fine Structure Constant and 10-3
per unit velocity equates with 19, divided by the correction coefficient 1.000082877.
The velocity of the Beta-particle magneton, would be 3.065723364 m s-1,
i.e. in order to account for a similar magneton-mass flow where all magnetons would
have a mass flow proportional to their distance from the centre of the proton and the neutron.
This would be predicted as it would be predicated by the continuity equation of the
1st Law of Thermodynamics, i.e. for volumetric-magneton flow as the divergence of a
solenoidal vector equals zero ( after James Clerk Maxwell ).
The thickness of the shell, i.e. the electon's surface membrane, can
also be found from the equation
7.415649549 x 10-17 m = 0.212026694 N x 3.065723364 metres s-1 / [ 511,002.575 eV x C x 57.21501729 m ]
If one multiplies the electron radius by the 511,002.575 eV of the rest-mass
energy per electron-charge volume, the velocity of light, C, and divided by the electron-charge
line of 3.065723364 m s-1, one now has 3.705612702 kg s-2. This value is
the Spring Constant for the surface of the electron, e x C2 multiplied by the Magnetic Constant per
4Pi steradian and divided by the cube of the Fine Structure Constant. Thus
7.415649549 x 10-17 m x 511,002.575 eV x C / 3.065723364 m s-1
=
e x C2 x [ 4Pi x 10-7 kg m5 / 4Pi steradian x F.S.C.3 ]
=
3.705612702 kg s-2
This value 3.705612702 kg s-2, is also the value, in Newtons
per metre, of the graviton force per electron per " atomic length ", i.e. e / 1st shellR2.
Furthermore this value equates with the power of one magneton, e x C2 x the Magnetic
Constant per 4Pi steradian per unit magneton " H " , divided by the Fine Structure Constant cubed.
0.212016694 N / 57.21501729 m
= e x C2 x 4Pi x 10-7 kg m5 /
[ 4Pi x F.S.C.3 x unit H ]
= 3.705612702 kg s-2
We can now derive the Searlian electric-potential convection thickness.
The Spring Constant, i.e. 3.705612702 kg s-2, can now be
divided by the Magnetic Constant per 4Pi steradian and a scaling factor of 10-3 to give
3.7056125692 x 10 5 m5 s-2. Dividing again by the
electron-charge volume and unit magneton " H " in m2 s-1 equates with the
frequency of light through the electron-surface membrane. This value is
3.705612697 x 105 m5 s-2 / [ e x H ] =
2.312839778 x 1026 Hz.
Dividing 2.312839778 x 1026 Hz by the velocity of light, i.e. the velocity of the graviton
and the spin-coupling-accelerated magneton gives the reciprocal length of the electon's surface-membrane
thickness, i.e. 1.292609365 x 10-18 m.
1.292609365 x 10-18 m = C / 2.312839778 x 1026 Hz
[ For a further discussion on how this last equation equates with the known radiation, i.e. the magneton or photon,
emitted by an emitter, please see the reference to Prof. Malcolm Longair's book " Theoretical Concepts in Physics "
mentioned in the Electron spin-coupling length portable-documetn file. ]
This new term, ( i.e. Eq. 1 ),
might be the term for describing the actual-veritable thickness of the electron surface,
e.g. the thickness of the " electric-convection potential ",
which G.F.C. Searle described in his 1897 published work;
On the Steady Motion of an Electrified Ellipsoid. This means that the surface thickness is the next
all-important classical-atomic factor
which we muct discover. We can say this because if the electron is hollow
( as G.F.C. Searle states that both he and Heaviside agreed that the Electric-field vector
E and the Magnetic-field vector H must be zero at the electron centre ), then
the Electric-field vector
E and the Magnetic-field vector H must also be orthogonal to each other,
i.e. for Maxwell's Laws to apply at the atomic level.
If the Electric-field vector
E and the Magnetic-field vector H must be zero at the electron centre,
then the Electric-field vector
E and the Magnetic-field vector H must flow through the electron surface.
This occurrence indicates that the Gravitational-field vector must be orthogonal to both
the the Electric-field vector
E and the Magnetic-field vector H and the Gravitational-field vector
must flow through the electron centre. This occurrence would make a great deal of mechanical sense.
If we look at BRITGRAV4 Figure 2, we can see that the the Gravitational-field vector must be orthogonal
to both the the Electric-field vector E and the Magnetic-field vector H,
i.e. for the bound electron and the free electron. If we look at BRITGRAV4 Figure 3, then we can depict
the magnetons in BRITGRAV4 Figure 4 and the gravitons in BRIRGRAV4 Figure 5 flowing into the
constellation of electrons in BRITGRAV4 Figure 3.
The magnetons must flow vertically downward into the electron surface and the gravitons must flow more-or-less sideways
into the constellation of electrons in BRITGRAV4 Figure 3. BRITGRAV4 Figure 5 depicts the neutron centre,
but the static electron depicted at the centre of BRITGRAV4 Figure 5 could equally well depict any of the
static electrons in BRITGRAV4 Figure 3. The arrows emanating outwards from (and going into) the central
static electron depicted in BRITGRAV4 Figure 5 represent the binding energy of the gravitons' mechanical
interaction with the surface of the electric-convection potential-membrane,
i.e. they constitute the binding energy of the proton ( e.g. 32,444.608 eV x 18 graviton units times 1836 static electrons
equals 1.07222 GeV ).
The gravitons depicted in BRITGRAV4 Figure 5 must flow sideways, i.e. orthogonally into the
electric-convection potential-membrane as well as flowing orthogonally all the way into the centre
and out again if the gravitational-field vector is to remain orthogonal to both the Electric-field
vector E and the Magnetic-field vector H. The natural expansion cycles and
contraction cycles of the proton's magnetons, ( i.e. the proton ionisation cycles ), predicate that
some graviton flow must emanate from the electron surface and orbit/return to the same static-electron
surface, in order for conservation of mass to be upheld.
The proton does not change its mass when it expands and contracts its magnetons,
( e.g. only the loss/gain of a bound electron changes the proton mass ), so we know the mass needed to
expand a magneton must come from within the proton.
Only the absorption of part of the graviton mass can account for this phenomenon according to our model,
so that is why the gravitational-field vector must flow partly through the electric-convection
potential ( i.e. that is why we say that the mass is convected through the surface ) and part of the
gravitational-field vector must flow orthogonally through the static electrons and bind the proton
together internally.
Since atoms ( other than Hydrogen ) have ionisation potentials which change according to the number of
atomic protons which are actually ionised at any one time, the model depicts why the
different atomic protons have sequentially higher and higher ionisation levels,
i.e. the graviton flow between protons via their commonly-bound neutrons allows
magneton expansion in sequentially-ionised intra-atomic protons to be accounted for.
Graviton flow intra-atomically is the only manner by which intra-atomic magneton expansion can
be accounted for, i.e. according to the conservation-of-mass law of the First Law of Thermodytnamics.
The contracting magneton, e.g. imagine the six magnetons in BRITGRAV4 Figure 4 are
contracting from the molar radius as the proton captures a free electron, must return their excess mass/length
to the gravitons, which must in turn allow proportional expansion and contraction of intra-atomic
protons to return to their appropriate mass/length variations within the atom.
Further to this phenomenon; the returning/contracting magneton must flow entirely into
the outgoing gravitons for this appropriate magneton-mass/length variation within the atom.
We can now state; that according to our model, mechanical-magneton flow must integrate with outgoing
mechanical-graviton flow, i.e. in order to account for the phenomenon known as successive-proton ionisation.
For example, if one multiplies 4Pi times the electron radius squared, by Eq. 1,
then one has the hypothesised volume of the electric-convection potential,
i.e. which the graviton must flow into and out of again.
If one then divides this mathematical volume by the volume of the hypothesised graviton-unit cycle,
e.g. Pi times the Planck Length squared times 2.426316 x 10-12 m,
then one gets a value of 4.50668 x 1031.
This value can be factorised to give: the " 1st shell Radius squared ",
divided by the electron-surface membrane thickness,
multiplied by the square of the velocity of light, multiplied by the
graviton frequency of ( C/2.426316 x 10-12 m,
multiplied by 10-7, divided by the Fine Structure Constant squared
and the only coefficient involved is the 4th power of
the coefficient term in Eq. 1, i.e. 1.0000828774.
The metric terms are " per unit volumetric acceleration per unit cycle of the graviton ".
This means that the graviton is accelerated as it comes out of the surface
of the " electric-convection potential ". This completes Searle's picture.
er = electron radius =
7.415649545 x 10-17metre 1st
Shell radius = 5.291785381 x 10-11metre e
= electron charge volume = 1.6021917 x 10-19Coulumb
Let us look
at a few examples. Voltage = force divided by area. The force of 1 magneton
divided by the electron radius squared ( e.g. in Figures 1, BRITGRAV3 and
BRITGRAV4) should equal the electron ( rest mass ) voltage of 511,002 eV ( its
energy per electron-charge volume ). The force of 1 magneton is found from the
classical equation:
Force of magneton = e x C x ( number of magnetons in Ampѐres per metre ) x
magnetic constant / 4Pi
Force of 1 magneton = e x C x ( 1 Ampѐre per metre ) x 4Pi x 10-7kg m-5 / 4Pi
= 4.803249 x 10-18N
Electron radius squared = Eq. 1 squared
Electron ( rest mass ) voltage = 511,002.576 eV = Me x C2 / e
This compares well with the
proton rest-mass voltage equation
1836 magnetons x 4.8032 x 10-18N / [ 1.4089 x 10-15m ]2
= 938.200 Mega-eV x 17,275 x F.S.C.-1 x 2
Proton radius = 1.40897341 x 10-15m
Proton rest mass = 938,200,727.7 eV
The value
given by Eq. 2 on the left-hand side equals 2.8588 x 1018 Volts.
This depicts how the magneton melts ( i.e. flows ) into the electron surface and
the electron surface becomes the " Electric-convection potential " of
G. F. C. Searle ( a Cavendish Laboratory presenter at Cambridge University in
the 1890s ). If we multiply this value by Eq. 1 and divide by the electron-charge
volume, then our units are Volt-metres per Coulomb. These are the reciprocal of
the units of the Electric Constant.
Electric Constant = ε0 = 8.854187816 x 10-12Coulomb Volt-1m-1
L.H.S. Eq. 2 x Eq. 1 =
[ e / Electric constant ] x 103 x F.S.C.-3 / 4Pi
(3)
We can now
depict how the magneton might flow as it expands into the " electric-convection potential "
plus condenses from the " electric-convection potential " into the outgoing
graviton. The value given by Eq. 2 on the left-hand side equals 2.8588 x 1018
Volts. If we multiply this by the electron radius and the electron-radius
coupling-coefficient 1.000082877 and the unit length, ( but without using the
electron-radius coupling-constant e / 1st-shell radius2 ), we find the force of the graviton in
milliNewtons.
L.H.S. Eq. 2 x er
x 1.000082877 x unit length = 103Me2
G0PL-2 mN
(4)
Gravitational Constant = 6.662031411 x 10-11m3kg-1s-2
Graviton force = Me2x G0 x PL-2
= 0.2120166946 Newtons
PL = Planck Length = 1.61478412 x 10-35 metre
We have
depicted how the magneton flow might operate in the static electron, ( i.e. the proton's
electron ). This phenomenon would occur as the magneton flows through the electron surface
and onward out into the
proton's outgoing graviton. We can now depict how the inertial force of the orbital-electron
magneton-rim equals the gravitational force of the orbital-electron. Inertial
force is equal to mass multiplied by velocity squared divided by the radius of
spin.
Velocity of spin = C x F.S.C. ms-1
= 2,178,691 ms-1
Inertial force = Me x v2 / eq. 1
= Me2x G0 x PL-2
x 2000 x F.S.C.-1 x 17,275-1
Me v2 /
[ Eq. 1 x 2000 / F.S.C. x 17,275 N ] =
Me2 G0 x PL-2
x = 0.21201 N
(5)
The force of the electron can
now be related to the Coulomb Force of the 1st shell of Hydrogen, i.e. other
than by multiplying the electron-self-gravitating force of 0.212 Newtons by the
cube of the Fine Structure Constant.
The electron radius ( Eq. 1 ) multiplied by the
electron-self-gravitating force of 0.212 Newtons, multiplied by 4Pi x 103
times the electron ground-state mass, times the velocity of light, divided by
Planck’s Constant and the ratio of the induction radius to the 1st shell
radius, ( i.e. 17,275 ) equals the Coulomb Force.
Eq. 1 x 0.21201 N x 1034PiMeC
/ 17,275 h = 8.2388 x 10-8 N
(6)
The Coulomb force = 8.238837117 x 10-8 Newtons.
The Coulomb force is the mechanical force ( i.e. magnetic-electronic screening force ) due to
the interaction of the orbital electron at the 1st-shell radius
of the Hydrogen Atom. It is the force which is needed to be overcome, by any particle,
in order for the Hydrogen atom to be ionised so that the Hydrogen atom will break
its simple electron-proton bond and bind to a new atom or molecule.
The particle
might be another electron, proton, neutron, magneton, graviton or photon which can
contribute sufficient energy to initiate the proton-electron break-up interaction.
From the
earlier discussion on a particle sub-unit of matter which was a fibre-like
coil-shaped particle, we can test if this unit of matter within the magneton
could contribute to the known force of the magneton, i.e. 4.803249 x 10-18Newtons
= ( H m2s-1 x eC4Pi x 10-7kg m-5 / 4Pi steradian ) Newtons. If we
multiply this curious unit of mass ( 7.3726 x 10-51kg = 1 Hz x h C-2
) by the velocity2 of the ground-state magneton ( C x F.S.C )2
and divided by the electron radius ( Eq. 1 ), we get the force of one magneton
and some of our scaling factors ( 4.803249 x 10-18Newtons ).
[ 7.3726 x 10-51kg ] x
[ C2 F.S.C.2 ] / Eq. 1 = 4.8032 x 10-18 N x
[ Me x 16Pi2 x 103 ] / [ 17,275 x F.S.C. x e x 4Pi x 10-7 kg m5 ]
(7)
All of the variables in
brackets on the right-hand-side of eq. 7 must relate to Joules per metre per cycle, i.e. kg metre per second or momentum.
This may be because the term " e x Unit Area / [ Me 4Pi x 10-7 ] "
is dimensionless. This dimensionless ratio can be found in many of these new equations,
i.e. especially when the ratio is a large number or involves gravitational phenomena when
comparisons are needed with their similar electromagnetic equations.
It is interesting to see that the electron charge to mass ratio ( the specific volume of
ionisation of the hydrogen atom ) again shows up as a scaling factor. It will
doubtlessly show up again, i.e. in other forthcoming equations.
The Coulomb Force of the 1st shell of Hydrogen divided by the
electron-self-gravitating force of 0.212 Newtons equals the cube of the
Fine Structure Constant. This last equation shows how, mathematically speaking,
the electron radius has been lost, physically speaking, ( in past history ). The
electron radius multiplied by 4Pi x 103 times the electron
ground-state mass, times the velocity of light, divided by Planck’s Constant,
divided by e / 1st shell radius2 per unit distance and the ratio of
the induction radius to the 1st shell radius, equals the cube of the Fine
Structure Constant.
eRadius x emass x c x 4Pi x 103
x 1st shell radius2 x Unit Distance / ( h x e x 17,275 )
= F.S.C.3
Since 4Pi times the electron ground-state mass,
divided by Planck’s Constant ( times Unit Ampѐres per metre ),
equals the ratio of the induction radius to the 1st shell radius,
the above electron-radius equation simplifies to
eRadius x c x 103
x 1st shell radius2 x Unit Distance / H x e
= F.S.C.3
where H is Maxwell's Magnetic-field vector " unit Ampѐres per metre "
and the electron-radius coefficient 1.000082877 is multiplied by the electron radius, i.e. to make the equation balance.
So where do these last seven equations come from? The
first one is the electron radius. It is derived by " proof by
construction " from BRITGRAV4 Figure 3 and by the discovered coupling
constant/correction co-efficient. Equations 2 and 4 depict how the force of the
magneton ( returning to the electron ) must equal the ( outgoing ) force of the
Graviton. The incoming-graviton force must equal the force of the
static-electron surface and the force of the outgoing magneton. This is due to
the volumetric-flow law of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics, i.e. if no volumetric
flow is lost ( from the magneton, static-electron surface or the graviton ) , then
no force can be lost. This is also true because the magneton, static-electron
surface and the graviton are all basically orthogonal to each other.
For the incoming magneton the force per metre is
one-dimensional. For ( half ) the electron surface, the force per metre squared
is two-dimensional. For the outgoing gravitons the force per metre cubed is
three-dimensional. The force per metre cubed ( in classical physics ) equals the
Volts per metre. The Volts per metre value is the value of the Electric field
(E ). From Maxwell's current displacement law, [ J = Ampѐres m-2 + ε0E / d(t) ],
we know that the electric field is a magnetic field with electrons in it. We
hypothesise ( we can test for this ) that the electrons
( travelling more-or-less parallel to the magneton lines of force ) travel in a magnetic
field due to the electron's gravitons
wrapping themselves around the protons' magnetons mechanically. This phenomenon
is due to at least two occurences; firstly, the helical nature of the electron's gravitons
( e.g. as depicted in BRITGRAV4 Figure 2 ), would make the gravitons mechanically wrap themselves
about the proton's straight-parallel
magnetic field lines, ( i.e. an electrical field is a magnetic field with a charged particle in it ).
Secondly, the proton's straight-parallel magnetons cause the electron's polarised
gravitons to be deflected and turn away from the magnetons in a
counterclockwise-helical spiral-flight, i.e. when the electron orbit is orthogonal to
parallel megneton lines of force. This deflection causes " Theta pinching ", e.g. the phenomenon
whereby an electron orbiting within a magnetic field actually contracts the magnetons within
its orbit so that the magnetons are closer together ( pinched ).
4.803249882 x 10-18N / Equation 13
= [ 13.6eV / 1st ShellR ] x [ 1st ShellR3 x 17,275 x F.S.C-8
x C3 x 109 x unit volume per Unit Magneton3 ]
(8)
Force of 1 magneton = e x c x ( 1 Ampѐre per metre ) x 4Pi x 10-7kg m-5/4Pi
= 4.803249 x 10-18N
Electric Field = 13.60578693 Volts / 5.291785381 x 10-11m
( Please see Table 2 in " Heaviside's study of Gravitation via Maxwell's Laws.pdf " on the link above for the
tables on the application of Maxwell's Laws to the atom )
Eq. 1 can be considered as the electron
radius or the part of the electron radius which contains matter. Eq. 1 depicts the
mathematical-electron radius which includes the real thickness of the electron-surface membrane
which the mathematical and virtual-electron radius passes through. We can see
from Eq. 8 that for every time that one has divided the force of the magneton
by the electron-radius equation, one has multiplied the electron
radius by
F.S.C.-3 x 103
(9)
By doing this one has the velocity of light reciprocal
in units of metres, i.e. with a scaling factor of Maxwell's " H ", in Ampѐres per metre being
applied. This phenomenon is what makes this equation (Eq. 9 ) unique as a small
change in the coefficient ( 1.000082877 ) in (Eq. 1 ), i.e. in terms of the mechanical
radius of the electron ( which is the proton-centre radius divided by 19 ), has
brought the classical result ( for the electron-surface thickness ) back to being
exactly equal to the reciprocal of " C x 103 x F.S.C.-3 ".
One can now see how Maxwell's
equations, e.g. the curl functions, are applied at the atomic level. The
curl function equation is when one makes a change in the function by
dividing the equation by an atomic length, i.e a length which is involved in
the equation. The opposite equations are Stokes' equations. In Stokes' equations one
multiplies or integrates the equation by a length which is involved in the
equation. These multiplications or divisions which are integrations and derivations
formally in mathematics, change the dimension of the
equation field from a line to a square to a cube and back to a square and a
line, i.e. just as the magneton does when flowing into the electron surface,
then into the electron inner volume, then out to the electron surface again and
out into the outflowing magneton ( or outflowing graviton ).
Let us look at one of Maxwell's 4
great equations, i.e. one of the equations which Heaviside has translated to us
from Maxwell's archaic Gothic script to the Clarendon font. The equation should
read: The Electric Field voltage per metre square equals the difference in
magnetic flux density ( i.e. the difference between the maximum flux density at
the pole of the magnet passing at 90 degrees to the wire and zero flux density
when the magnetic pole is not passing the wire ), divided by the difference in
time between the magnetic pole passing the wire the first and second times. The
negative ( -B ) term means that the magnetic field which is the same magneton
grouping which constitutes the voltage
field, i.e. the magneton field induced to come out of the conducting wire when
the magnet passes close by it, is in the opposite direction to the magnetic field direction coming out of the
magnet. This is explained by Newton's equal and opposite-reaction law.
curl E = -B / dt
(10)
The Electric Field of the atom = 13.60578693 Volts / 5.291785381 x 10-11m,
i.e. from Eq. 8. The curl of the Electric Field means the division of the
Electric field by the length of the 1st Shell radius again, i.e. by 5.2917 x 10-11m
again. Maxwell was trying to develop Stokes' Equations from some work that
Kelvin had given Maxwell.
When
Maxwell described what he was trying to explain, he wrote that by using the
word " curl ", he did not mean swirl or twirl. So he did not mean
constant movement. However, he did mean a rotation of a geometrical plane about
one of the X-Y-Z axes was occurring once only. His first equation was " curlA = B ". He was trying to make an electromagnetic alphabet
using the gothic-script letters A to K. One thing which I have found is that
when you are trying to introduce something to people, do not introduce a new alphabet
or a language as well. A is the magnetic field which always emanates and
returns to a conductor when you apply a voltage to the conducting wire. If you
curl a straight piece of wire into a circle, you have the magnetic field
emanating out of the wire into the circle, back around the outside of the wire
( and eventually going back into the proton which the magneton emanated out
from ). The magnetic field going into the centre of the circle has a
magnetic-flux density which is labelled the " B-field ". It is measured
in units called Tesla and the dimensional metric dimensions are kg per metre
cubed per second ( Volt seconds per metre square ). The " A-field " is
measured in metric dimensions of kg per metre square per second. It is called
the " flux rate " in the 20th century and can measure any particles as
they pass through a square metre in a second. It is derived from the pressure
( e.g. the voltage ) divided by the velocity. The pressure ( e.g. the voltage )
divided by the frequency gives the flux. It is measured in Volt seconds and
gives the Voltage per cycle of a single particle, ( e.g. the number of cycles on
a single-linear particle stream ). It is Planck's Constant divided by the
electron charge. It is measured in units of kg per metre per second, So, the
flux is used to measure the cycle number of a single particle passing down the
line that forms the edge of a cube ( at right-angles to the square base of the
metre-square cube ) and the curl of the flux measures the total number of
particles passing through the square-metre base of the cube each second.
Why did Maxwell bother to try
to set up an alphabet for us? It is because Kelvin formulated the 1st Law of
Thermodynamics, i.e. the law which states that mass flowing into a junction
must come out of it at some point and time. Kelvin and Clausius were trying to
make a formal explanation for heat and energy. Clausius and Kelvin were
colleagues and Clausius was Planck's teacher. Clausius and Kelvin credited Sadi
Carnot with the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics, i.e. the law which states that you
will get a little friction and heat loss when you apply energy ( heat ) to any
working machinery. Clausius developed the 3rd Law of Thermodynamics, the law
which states that there is a maximum amount of work which you can get out of
any machine or process. This law also means that you must apply energy ( heat )
to any machinery to get the machinery to work. Carnot was trying to define the
amount of energy which must be applied to the machinery process ( e.g. the
heating of water to make steam ), so that French engineers could do what
Trevithick had done for Cornish mines. Together these three laws form the
grand-unified field theory. Heaviside then decoded Maxwell's equations and
simplified them into 4 useful equations ( the first of which is Eq. 10 ).
Maxwell's second-most important-equation involved the amperage per square metre
at the ends of a conductor. His term J, which symbolises " Ampѐres per
square metre ", symbolises the number of electrons per second emanating out
of the cross-section of a conducting wire ( and a capacitor plate if you
discharge static electricity ).
J = Ampѐres m-2 + ε0E / d(t)
(11)
If we
integrate the left-hand-side of Eq. 10, i.e. with respect to length in order to
think of the voltage per length of conducting wire instead of the voltage per
metre square, we have to integrate the R.H.S. ( if we wish to keep Eq. 10
balanced ), while we are making changes to show how Eq. 11 was derived. The
integration of Eq. 10, i.e. multiplying by length to derive the integrated length, will
equate with the next equation
E = ∫ - [ B / dt ] d ( length )
This gives
Electric Field = -Volts / metre
Multiplying the E = V / m by the Electric Constant gives
ε0E = -ε0V / m
This
gives us the ability to find the amperage in a conductor, ( e.g. because Eq. 3
shows that the Electric Constant is equal to the electron charge divided by
the product of the Voltage and the metric length ).
The number
of Coulombs, i.e. the number of static-electricity electrons within a capacitor plate travelling
around and around the central point in the round capacitor plate where the conducting
wire is soldered to, will equate with the number of Coulombs ( of dynamic
electrons ) moving down the conducting wire that the capacitor plate is soldered to by
its own short-conducting wire ). This number of Coulombs will increase for every Volt that one
applies to the ends of the main-conducting wire. The increase in voltage to the main-conducting
wire will increase the number of Coulombs per second passing through the imaginary
square metre of the cross-section of the main current-carrying
conducting wire, i.e for every moment that we pass a magnet passed the conducting
wire. If we divide the last equation by a difference of time, ( e.g. 1 second from
now ), we get
ε0E / d(dt) = -ε0V/m(dt)
= Ampѐres per metre square
(12)
ε0E / d(dt)
= D. D is Maxwell's term for the electron or
proton charge stored on a capacitor plate. The R.H.S. of Eq. 12 now becomes
Coulombs per metre square per second ( or Ampѐres per metre square ) per
cross-section of wire. We now have Maxwell's 2nd-most important-equation, i.e.
the total current is equal to the current being discharged by a capacitor plate
and the current flowing past a cross-section of the conducting wire.
J = D/(dt) + Coulombs/m2(dt)
= Ampѐres per metre square
(13)
We can make Eq. 10 work for the Hydrogen atom now.
curl 13.605 Volts / 5.2917 x 10-11m = -17,275Pi [ 13.605
T / 1.5198 x 10-16 s ]
(14)
1st Shell Orbit time = 1.519833811 x 10-16s
1st Shell radius = 5.291785381 x 10-11m
Electric Field = 13.60578693 Volts / 5.291785381 x 10-11m
B = Flux density = 13.60578693 Tesla
Now we can try to apply the
Heaviside-Maxwell equation to the electron. The Electric Field per metre square
on the L.H.S. of Eq. 14 is 511,002 Volts per electron radius squared ( 511,002
Volts/ Eq. 1 squared ). The R.H.S. is 511,002 Tesla divided by the time it takes
1 magneton to travel 1 electron thickness at the velocity of light times the Fine
Structure Constant.
curl 511,002 Volts/ [ Eq. 1 ] = - 511,002 T / [5.92501
x 10-25 s x 2 x 10-3 x F.S.C.4]
(14a)
Electron radius travel time = 5.925011083 x 10 -25s
Electron radius = Eq. 1
curl Electric Field = 511,002.575 Volts/ [ Eq. 12 ]
B = Flux density = 511,002.575 Tesla
If we look at Stokes'
Equations ( Theoretical Concepts in Physics Longair ), we can see how Maxwell
developed his equations, i.e. from the laws of mass-fluid flow. If we look at
Heaviside's books ( Electrical Papers Heaviside ), we can see how Heaviside applied
Maxwell's Equations to electricity, light, magnetism and gravitation. If we
look at G.F.C. Searle's 1897 paper on the " electric convection potential
of the electron surface ", then we can see how mass flows into the electron
surface from the magneton current ( which both Heaviside and G.F.C. Searle
mention ) and out of it again. The important observation to note is that G.F.C.
Searle knew Heaviside, Maxwell and J. J. Thomson and that Maxwell, Stokes, Joules
and Kelvin were all colleagues. No-one except for us ( these people and you the Reader ),
has bothered to put their work
together until now. We can see that we can now formulate gravitation according
to Maxwell's Laws and make a grand-unified field-theory, i.e. one which will
allow space travel by classical magnetism and classical gravitation. We shall
see and say more about this later.
In James Clark Maxwell's strange language, i.e. when you introduce new concepts to people, don't
introduce a new alphabet ( as Oliver Heaviside pointed out, Electrical papers, Heaviside 1893 ),
Equation 26 from " Heaviside's study of Gravitation via Maxwell's Laws.pdf " is
a • (∇ X h ) = a • ( ρv ) - a • d( a ) / G0 d( t ) = Watts per m3 ( Eq. 26 )
If we now
look at Heaviside's equation for gravitational-energy dissipation, ( i.e. Eq. 26
in Heaviside's study of Gravitation via Maxwell's Laws.pdf ), we see 3 terms.
The first term a • (∇ X h ) symbolises
" the divergence of the acceleration times gravitational flux times the
sine of the angle between the flux and its acceleration ", i.e. the
inertial spin of the electron surface is at right angles to its forward
velocity and its incoming graviton.
a • ( ρv ) = m s-2 x kg m-2 s-1
The above term is the second term in Heaviside's Eq. 26
The second term symbolises " acceleration times the density of the electron
( the force per metre cubed ), times the velocity of the gravitational
flux ", i.e.
At the atomic level acceleration times electron density times velocity =
[ C2 / 1st shell radius ] x [ Me / e ] x C = 2.89495335 x 1024 W m-3
This value, i.e. in Watts per metre, when multiplied by the square of the 1st shell radius,
i.e. [ 5.291785381 x 10-11 m ]2
equates with the proton's Coulomb force ( Please see Figure 1 ) multiplied by the velocity of light,
C, divided by the square of the Fine Structure Constant and our
unique atomic length of [ e / 1st shell radius2 ]
2.89495335 x 1024 W m-3 x [ 5.291785381 x 10-11 m ]2
= C x Coulomb Force / { F.S.C.2 x ( e / [ 5.291785381 x 10-11 m ]2 ) }
Below is the third term in Heaviside's Eq. 26 is
a • d( a ) / G0 d( t )
The third term in Heaviside's study symbolises " acceleration times the change in force per unit
volumetric acceleration change in time, i.e. the change in kinetic energy force of a mass unit as it accelerates
from zero velocity to the velocity of light, from the edge of the Cosmos to the centre of the Cosmos. This would
have us follow the inward mass flow, i.e. the implosion-explosion cycle of the Cosmos, via Galileo's equations of
motion at this point.
a • d( a ) / G0 d( t ) = Watts m-3 = [ acceleration x mass m-3 ] x m s-1
At the atomic level, the third term symbolises " acceleration of the ground-state electron
times the acceleration of the upper-state electron divided by the Gravitational
Constant and by the cycle-time of the Hydrogen-minimum photon-length ", i.e.
m s-2 x m s-2 x G0-1 s-1
Heaviside is explaining matter accretion ( e.g. on a star ) using Maxwell's
equations. We can attempt to show how photon accretion by an electron can be
partially explained by using this equation, ( i.e. as we did within
Heaviside's study of Gravitation via Maxwell's Laws.pdf, when describing the power per metre squared of the
Hydrogen atom with the electron in its ground state ). The third term in Eq. 26
is the inertial acceleration of the ground-state electron times the inertial
acceleration of the electron at the molar radius, divided by the Gravitational
Constant and the cycle-time of one photon length of the Hydrogen-maximum
frequency.
a x d ( a ) / [ G0 d(t) ] = - [ C2
x F.S.C.2 / 1st ShellRadius ] x [ C2 / MolarRadius
] / [ G0 x (3.03966 x 10-16 s) ]
(15)
The solution
to Eq. 15 is 5.463140498 x 1074 Watts m-3. The negative
solution symbolises that the photon-emission direction is opposite to the
electron forward-orbital direction, i.e. as the cosine of 180 degrees is = -1.
The flux of the graviton can be derived directly from the
Planck Length-squared equation, ( See equations 19 to 21 in Heaviside's study of
Gravitation via Maxwell's Laws.pdf ). By re-arranging the Planck Length-squared equation
one derives the flux to be
1.666898784 x 1047 kg m-1 s-1
Eq.19, after Planck and from the Heaviside.pdf, can be written out as “ C3
divided by one Graviton-cycle length “ divided by “ 2Pi and the Gravitational Constant “ as
being equal to “ the electron body mass multiplied by the velocity of Light, C, and divided
next by " 2Pi and the square of the Planck length “.
By dividing, in the next step, by a length, i.e. in order to get the flux rate in kg per metre square
per second, kg m-2 s-1 one uses the length of a single graviton cycle,
2.426316079 x 10-12 m. This equates with a flux rate of
6.870080937 x 1058 kg m-2 s-1
This where it becomes difficult, i.e. if one wants to relate this specific flux rate to the answer
that one finds for the third term in Heaviside's eq. 26,
a • d( a ) / G0 d( t ) = Watts m-3 = [ acceleration x mass m-3 ] x m s-1
= Eq. 15 = 5.463140498 x 1074 Watts m-3
If one divides 6.870080937 x 1058 kg m-2 s-1 by the emission time of
a single Hydrogen photon, i.e. the minimum-photon length emission time of 3.039667625 x 10-15 s,
one now has 2.260142155 x 1074kg m-2 s-2.
By multiplying the derived solution by unit velocity one finds a ratio of 10-14 times the unit viscosity
divided by Planck's Constant per unit volume, " h / e ". Thus
6.870080937 x 1058 kg m-2 s-1 / 3.039667625 x 10-15 s
= 2.260142155 x 1074 kg m-2 s-2
In the next step one finds the scaling factors which will make the value from this equation equal to Eq. 15.
2.260142155 x 1074 kg m-2 s-2 x 10-14 x unit viscosity x unit velocity x e / h
= Eq. 15 = 5.463140498 x 1074 Watts m-3 x 1.0000828774
The scaling factor of 1.0000828774 is from the Planck Constant, i.e. involving the total
electron-spin coupling length per second, the electron-membrane thickness from Eq. 1 and other
physics equations mentioned in the text.
We can now quote briefly from section 2.5 within " Heaviside's Study of
Gravitation via Maxwell's Laws.pdf " to explain further how atomic-level
emission can be further elucidated.
From Section 2.5 of: Heaviside's definition of Gravitational-energy Flux
Heaviside then multiplies ( eq. 22 ) by acceleration " a ". This gives
a • ( ∇ X h ) = a • ( ρv ) - a • d( a ) / G0d( t ) = Watts m-3 ( 26 )
where d( a ) / d( t ) is the change in acceleration between the points where matter is
at a near-infinite distance, to the points where the matter has converged to being one
body. The change in time is the time that it takes for matter at this distance to lose its
maximum potential energy and gain its maximum kinetic energy. This might be
considered as the change in time for the graviton units of one graviton-cycle length
to enter the inner hemisphere at the rear of the electron, i.e. just as the “ free electron
“ collides with a magneton as the “ free electron “ is decelerated from the velocity of
light to zero velocity. This specific deceleration will cause the electron circumferential
rim to accelerate from zero up to the speed of light, i.e. just as the single graviton-cycle
units of one cycle length start to enter the surface of the stopped-electron's inner
hemisphere. Thus this situation can cause the phenomenon of light emission,
i.e. according to the manner in which one follows Heaviside's ( or anyone else's equations ).
Eq. 26 is equivalent to
∇ • ( a X h ) = F • v – a x d( a ) / G0d( t ) ( 27 )
The change in acceleration from the time that it takes matter to converge from
near-infinity to a single point is simply unit acceleration " a ", i.e. from zero acceleration
to maximum acceleration where it hits a surface. This gives
∇2 • ( a X h ) = F • v – a2 / G0d( t ) ( 28 )
The potential energy, U, is equal to a2 / 2G0 .
However, d( U ) / d( t ) represents the rate of potential energy loss of matter as it
converges, i.e. the power loss due to a distance decrease from a proton shell or a
photon-length increase at the atomic level in regards to photon-emission power ) between
the large and small bodies, whilst - d( U ) / d( t ) represents the rate of increase
of potential energy ( i.e. the power gain that can be dissipated during the upcoming
collision due to increasing the height between the large and small body ( or the
decrease in photon lengths at the atomic level in regards to photon-emission power ) [3].
Consequently, the Heaviside vector curl ( a X h ) =( a X kg / m s ) x m-1
represents the dissipation of gravitational energy per metre cubed. The 1st term in eq. 26 is
presented below.
Curl ( a X h ) = m s-2 x kg m-2 s-1 = kg m-1 s-3 = Watts m-3 ( 29 )
= me x G0 / PL2 x me x 2PiC x F.S.C / 1st shellR2
= 1.040714179 x 1027 Watts per m3
The third term in equation ( 26 ) gives us the keys to the decoding of photon-emission power
a x d( a ) / G0d( t )
where the first " a " term symbolises the velocity of light
squared divided by the single-graviton cycle length, i.e. C2 / 2.426315971 x 10-12 m.
C is the forward velocity of the electron just before it collides with one of the proton's
decelerating magnetons in the ground-state orbit. The change in acceleration of the
second " a " term, i.e. " d(a) ", refers to the increase in acceleration of the electron rim-spin,
proportionately, from zero to the velocity of light, as the forward velocity of the electron
decreases its above-mentioned acceleration proportionately, i.e. as it causes the single
graviton units to slide into the inner-rear hemisphere of the decelerating electron more quickly.
This gives us C2 divided by the G.F.C. Searlian thickness of the electron rim, i.e. 1.296209367 x 10-18 metre.
The term " d( t ) " in the equation refers to the change in
time from the start of photon emission to the completion of photon emission, i.e. for the
Hydrogen atom's maximum frequency and its shortest photon length of 9.112694287 x 10-8 m.
This gives us a time of 3.039667625 x 10-15 seconds.
Thus a x d( a ) / G0d( t ) =
[ C2 / 2.426315971 x 10-12 m ] x [ C2 / 1.296209367 x 10-18 m ] / ( G0 x 3.039667625 x 10-15 s ) ]
= 1.263819529 x 1089 Watts m-3
If we now multiply by the Planck Length squared times the G.F.C. Searlian thickness of the electron rim,
i.e. 1.296209367 x 10-18 metre and a single scaling factor of the Fine Structure Constant,
we have an exact ratio of the molar radius, i.e. where the proton picks up the " free electron " to the
radius of the Hydrogen atom. If we first make a ratio of the Heaviside-Searle-Planck emission power to the
emission power of the Hydrogen atom, which is 13.60578693 eVolts multiplied by the 1st-shell magneton
amperage of 3.311831626 x 10-3 Ampѐres, which equates with 4.5060075 x 10-2 Watts.
We thus have
1.263819529 x 1089 Watts m-3 x PL2 x 1.296209367 x 10-18 m
= 42.86784001 Watts
42.86784001 Watts divided by [ 13.60578693 eV x 3.311831626 x 10-3
Ampѐres gives us Watts in the denominator ]. We now have a ratio of
= 951.3486069
This ratio equals the ratio of the molar radius to the Hydrogen
atomic radius divided by the Fine Structure Constant, i.e.
= [ ( Molar radius / Hydrogen radius ) / F.S.C. ]
This equates with
7.347459333 x 10-10 m / [ 1.05835707 x 10-10 m x F.S.C. ]
This value will give one the final Proton to Hydrogen ratio divided by the Fine Structure Constant.
= [ 6.942331396 / F.S.C. ]
This concludes our depiction on how Heaviside's third
term in Eq. 26 can be used to demonstrate how " a x d( a ) / G0d( t ) "
can depict the deceleration of the " free electron " from the velocity of light to the
ground-state Hydrogen orbit and its subsequent photon emission of the Hydrogen-minimum
photon length, i.e. due to the volumetric deceleration of a single graviton-cycle
length within the Searlian electric-convection potential of the electron-surface
membrane.
The second term in Eq. 26 symbolises the gravitational force of the
ground-state electron times the graviton's velocity
F x v = [ Me2 x G0
/ PlanckL2 x Eq. 13 ] x C
(16)
The solution
to Eq. 16 is 2.918537616 x 1061 Watts m-3. The ratio
between the third Maxwellian term and the second Maxwellian term from Heaviside's
Eq. 26, i.e. at the atomic level where eq. 15 divided by eq. 16 is:
1010 x C x 2.426231679 x 10-12 m
/ F.S.C.3
One notes that eq. 15 multiplied by the cube of the
Searlian electron-membrane thickness gives Watts. If one multiplies the
force of the graviton by the velocity of light, C, then one has once again Watts.
If we divided the solution to " eq.15 x eq. 1 cubed ", by the power of the graviton, i.e.
C m s-1 x 0.212016692 Newtons, then we get the same solution, i.e.
1010 x C x 2.426231679 x 10-12 m
/ F.S.C.3
One notes that 2.426231679 x 10-12 m
is the Compton change in photon length irregardless of the incoming photon intensity
or frequency and is also our graviton-cycle length. Also, C x 2.426231679 x 10-12 m
equates with Kepler's areal velocity term and Planck's angular momentum
constant per unit body mass of the ground-state electron.
The first Maxwellian term in Eq. 26 ( see Heaviside's study of Gravitation
via Maxwell's Laws.pdf ) involves two cases. First, the case of divergence of gravitational-inertial acceleration
times the gravitational flux, i.e. the hypothetical phenomenon of electron self-gravitation
which may occur occasionally when the graviton re-enters its own orbital electron, i.e. after being forced into
a circular orbit by the proton's magnetons after being diverted from its presumably-straight path
before the proton's magnetons re-inforce the trajectory. The second case concerns the normal phenomenon
of the graviton units re-entering the back of the electron. This postulates that one half of the
incoming-graviton mass-flow gains centrifugal-spin momentum ( when it enters the electron-rear
inner hemisphere, thus losing the remaining one half of its former component of forward momentum,
as half the graviton splits off from the origial incoming, ( i.e. forward-moving ) graviton half.
The forward-momentum component of the graviton, carries on straight through both electron hemispheres.
This is hypothesised because the graviton
must flow into the electron hemisphere and form part of the electron hemisphere,
i.e. due to the continuity equation of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics. The spin
velocity goes down to c x F.S.C. by the time the diverged graviton-half reaches
the electron rim and the graviton-half forward velocity goes down to zero, although the
electron momentum still carries the electron itself forward at c x F.S.C..
The graviton then temporarily diverges orthogonally from itself into two halves of equal
mass but of differing shapes and volumes, i.e. at the point of contact where the
graviton touches the electron surface. The graviton-half which diverged orthogonally,
consequently moves backwards spiralling up inside the surface of the hemisphere
until the graviton-half reaches the hemispherical rim. At this point in space and time
the graviton-half loses all of its backwards centrifugal spin as well as its
radial-outwards flow and possibly half of the graviton-half flows into the
electron-magneton rim, i.e. due to 1/2 mass x velocity-squared kinetic-energy collision laws.
The graviton-half must now change its form as it flows through the magneton rim
of the electron, i.e. as half the graviton-half sub-units must now change into magneton sub-units.
The graviton/magneton sub-units continue to rotate around and within the hemispherical rim as centripetal spin,
before returning around and down the front of the electron hemisphere until the centripetal graviton-half converges with the
forward-momentum outgoing-graviton half. This latter-hypothetical phenomenon is due to surface-tension
forces within the electron hemisphere, ( i.e. those shear and viscosity forces which must change the
graviton/magneton sub-units back into graviton/electron-hemisphere sub-units and finally
back into the forward-momentum outgoing-graviton sub-units ).
The first term signifies the gravitational flux
changing in the ground-state electron as the electron enters the ground state,
i.e. when it is decelerated.
The second term depicts how the electron entering
the ground-state orbit ( distance ) may have its own graviton occasionally re-enter it, i.e. there
are now 2 gravitons entering the electron hemisphere. This might occur when the
electron is orbiting orthogonally and continually in a " B - field " of 62,584 magnetons.
The second term, i.e. below, symbolises the force per metre cubed multiplied by the velocity.
a • ( ρv ) = m s-2 x kg m-2 s-1
The third term indicates that a change in inertial acceleration ( orbit distances ) causes emission of
energy, i.e. a photon is emitted when the graviton re-enters itself from
behind.
The divergence of gravitation times the cosine of the
angle that it makes with the cross product of the
electron's inertial acceleration and gravitational flux gives Eq. 17
GDivergence ( GaccelerationX Gflux )
= [ C2 / Eq. 1 ] x [ Me / Eq. 12 ] x [ C / Eq. 1 ]
(17)
The solution to Eq. 17 is
8.694760963 x 1066 Watts m-3. This forms a ratio of 2Pi x107 with the third
Maxwellian term from Heaviside's Eq. 26, i.e. eq. 15 divided by eq. 17
( see Heaviside's study of Gravitation via Maxwell's Laws.pdf ).
At the atomic level in equation 17, [ Me / Eq. 12 ] x [ C / Eq. 1 ] equates with
the areal density of the mass multiplied by the frequency. This equates with the flux rate of 1.253982275 x 1032 units per
square metre per second. If one divides this flux rate by the hypothetical-graviton frequency of C / 2.426316079 x 10-12 m
and multiplies by the square of the hypothetical-electron thickness, one can find the electron mass by a further division using 103
x the cube of the Fine Structure Constant and C x 2.426316079 x 10-12 m per unit magneton " H ".
[ Me / Eq. 12 ] x [ C / Eq. 1 ] equates with
1.253982275 x 1032 kg per square metre per second.
1.253982275 x 1032 kg m-2 s-1 x Eq. 12 x unit magneton, " H " m2 s-1
divided by
[ C / 2.426316079 x 10-12 m ] Hz x [103 x F.S.C.-3 ]
= MassElectron x [ C x 2.426316079 x 10-12 m ]
which is of course Planck's Constant, " h " .
We now return from our discussion of section 2.5 in
" Heaviside's Study of Gravitation via Maxwell's Laws.pdf " to concern ourselves with
the magnetons involved in phenomena such as proton ionisation.
The electron magneton must
have some mathematical equivalence to the proton magnetons. The protons’
magnetons, i.e. the 62,584 magnetons which ionise the Hydrogen Atom ( and the H2
molecule ), are easily found. 13.605 Tesla ionise the Hydrogen proton. 13.605
Tesla are defined as 13.605 Webers per metre square. 13.605 Webers per metre
square are defined as 13.605 x 108 Maxwells per metre square. A
Maxwell is 1 magneton. 13.605 Webers per metre square x 4.5998 x 10-5
m2 = 6.2584 x 10-4 Weber. A Weber equals 108
Maxwells or 108 magnetons so 6.2584 x 10-4 Weber x 108
magnetons = 62,584 magnetons.
A Coulomb is a unit of static
electricity ( electrostatics ), e.g. 1 Cb per second = 1 Ampѐre. The current
flowing past a Hydrogen proton when it is ionised ( not the ground-state
bound-electron current ), orbits the magnetons made up of several ionised
Hydrogen atoms ( see Figures 2 and 3 ). A Coulomb is the volume which contains the
62,584 magnetons together with the ionised-Hydrogen proton and the
orbiting-ionised electron. It is the 62,584 magnetons flowing past the
1st-shell area, i.e. the proton charge per metre square, ( e/1st-shell radius2 ).
If we get this value of ( 57.215 metres ), which is our electron radius coefficient,
divided by the induction orbit radius of 9.1427 x 10-7 metre, we get
62,584 magnetons ( with a scaling factor of 103 ). These 62,584
parallel magnetons ( travelling at the velocity of light ), constitute the proton
charge per metre cubed e / [ 1st-shell radius2 x 9.142058743 x 10-7
m ], i.e. the phenomenon which occurs when we ionise the Hydrogen proton. A Coulomb,
mathematically speaking, equals the square of 9.142058743 x 10-7 metre multiplied
by Pi and multiplied by the ( Induction-state orbit ) amperage of
6.102061636 x 10-8 Ampѐres per unit Magneton " H " in Ampѐres per metre.
This singular coincidence equates the just-mentioned metric measurements with
1.602191701 x 10-19 metre cubed. This classical-mechanical atom will never cease to
amaze us, both for its beautiful symmetry and its heavenly elusiveness.
Figure 3, after Walter Ritz " Memoires " 1911
and edited by Pierre Weiss. Fig. 3 depicts the induction
of the electron from out of itsr 1st-shell ( hypothetically hexagonal-like ) orbit in the Hydrogen atom into the
induced-state orbit, i.e. when 62,584 parallel magnetons ( 13.605 Volts ), are
applied anti-parallel to the north-south polar axis of the Hydrogen atom. The magnetic
current of the electron rim ( the mathematical-volumetric flow ), multiplied by the magnetic force of the 62,484
magnetons, equals the gravitational force of the self-gravitating electron,
multiplied by the electric current of the electron in the induced-state orbit. " Theta-pinching ",
i.e. where the electron's forward-moving graviton actually pinches in the induction-state orbit
magnetons from a larger radius ( area ), is depicted.
Fig. 3 depicts the famous experiment, i.e.
" Bev = mv2/r "
where B symbolises the 13.605786 Volts per square metre applied to
an atom when a magnetic-flux density of 13.605786 Tesla is applied to a conductor
in a cyclic manner, " e " is the electron-charge volume of 1.6021917 x 10-19
m3, " v " is
the velocity of the electron orbiting within the applied voltage field at 2.18761 x 106
metres per second, " m "
symbolises the electron-ground state-mass of 9.109534 x 10-31 kg and
" r " symbolises the orbit radius of the electron within the applied
B-field at 9.142058 x 10-7 m.
From figures 1, 2 and 3 one can see the depicted differences between an electron
orbiting within the proton in the “ ground sate ” ( Fig. 1 ) and an electron
which has just been pulled from the proton in the ground state
( Figures 2 and 3 ), i.e. in order to orbit the " pinched-in " 62,584 magnetons in the
" induction-state " orbit.
Fig. 1 depicts an electron spinning and orbiting on the inside of a single magneton
which is only a depiction of one unit of a proton-magneton “ shell ”. We must stop and point out
that Maxwell once asked Faraday whether Faraday meant whether the magnetic field emanating out of a magnet
or an electromagnet was a " virtual " tube of force or a " real " tube of force, and the same for magnetons.
Faraday mistakenly believed that Maxwell wanted to believe in the so-called " ether " theory. Faraday wrongly answered Maxwell
by telling Maxwell that he ( Faraday ) meant a " virtual " tube of force from virtual magnetons. This is where the belief mistakenly began that
magnetons were " waves " and were not " particles ".
Figures 2 and 3 depict an electron spinning and orbiting on he outside of a magneton
shell. The difference between the two states, e.g. the inside-spin
state and the outside-spin state, is that in the inside state as in Fig. 1,
the electron’s electrical and magnetic forces would cause the proton’s
magnetons to shorten their overall length of travel and become wound in,
thus building up the proton-magneton internal-potential energy,
( i.e. its spring-constant energy ).
In Figures 2 and 3, the electron
spin is depicted going against the spin direction of 62,584
magnetons, e.g. thus forcing the ionising magnetons inward, due to
the electron’s spinning-magnetic rim as well as the electron’s
hypothetical graviton. This latter phenomenon is the so-called
well-known " Theta-pinching ", e.g. the " Larmor-frequency "
phenomenon. Figure 3 depicts the hypothetical Ritzian hexagonal orbit
of the electron in the ground state ( Walter Ritz 1911 ). This is depicted here
because Walter Ritz wrote that the atom at some points approached being a crystal,
which it is depicted as in the BritGrav figures due to the protons and
the neutrons interlocking with one another at specific angles and spatial
positions, i.e. when the protons and neutrons are shifting their positions as nucleons
during the fission/fusion phenomenon.
Since both the electron’s " ground-state " orbit and the
" induction-state " orbit are stable, i.e. both orbits are at
lowest entropy and permanent, the forces and volumetric flows are stable,
permanent and counter-balance one another. It is obvious from observing
the " Theta-pinching " phenomenon, that their must be a circular
force which is involved in “ pinching in ” the B-field magnetons
( see Figures 2 & 3 ). It is not obvious what this force is, however our
hypothetical graviton offers up the numerical solution.
The force of the graviton, i.e. the electron’s self-gravitating force,
" m2G0 / PL2 ",
divided by the force of the " induction-state " magnetons,
62,584 Ampѐres per metre x e c x µ0 / 4π = 3.006084657 x 10-12 Newtons
must equal the ratio of the electron’s magnetic-rim volumetric flow
to the volumetric flow of the electron in the " induced-state "
orbit, i.e.
( 6.102061 x 10-8 Ampѐres ).
The magnetic current is defined by the
electron-charge volume multiplied by the frequency of spin of the effective-electron radius,
i.e. e x [ C x F.S.C./2Pi x re.e. ]. The magnetic force
is defined by the 62,584 magnetons x Unit Ampѐres per metre x the
Magnetic constant x e x c / 4Pi. The Gravitational force is defined by
the electron mass squared x Newton's Gravitational constant divided by the Planck length squared.
The electric current in the induced-electron orbit is defined by e x c x F.S.C. / 2Pi x
InductionOrbit Radius.
The force of the graviton, divided by the force of the
" induction-state " magnetons, equals
0.212016694 Newtons / 3.006084657 x 10-12 Newtons =
7.052918271 x 1011
which equals 2000 / F.S.C.4
Henri Poincaré wrote in " Dernier Pensées 1910 " that we
should pay attention to Max Planck's ideas about mass flow. Max Planck said
to find the product of the electron mass and its velocity divided by the electron
radius. This will give us the mass flow within the electron through its surface.
The electron mass multiplied by " the velocity of light times the Fine Structure Constant "
and divided by the electron-surface membrane thickness, i.e. Eq. 1,
gives 1.537471217 x 10-6kg per second. If we divided
1.537471217 x 10-6kg per second by the earlier-mentioned ratio of
" 2000 / F.S.C.4 ", then we have 2.179907881 x 10-18kg per second.
This is also equal to the electron mass multiplied by " the velocity of light times the
Fine Structure Constant " and divided by the " Induction
State " orbit radius of 9.142058743 x 10-7metres. However, we also find that
2.179907881 x 10-18kg per second is exactly equal to the energy of the
ground-state electrons and the " Induction State " electrons of 13.60578693 eVolts multiplied by the
electron-charge volume and divided by the unit magneton " H " in Ampѐres per metre.
The volumetric flow of the electron in the
" Induced-State " orbit of 6.102061 x 10-8 Ampѐres ( See Figure 3 ),
multiplied by this ratio, i.e. 2000 / F.S.C.4, must equal the " magnetic
current ", i.e. the frequency of mass conversion in the electron rim which occurs within
the total electron-charge volume " e ". .
6.102061 x 10-8 Ampѐres x 2000 / F.S.C.4 = 43,037.34 Ampѐres
43,037.34 Ampѐres is equal to the electron-charge volume, " e ",
multiplied by the ( forward ) electron velocity, ( i.e. C x F.S.C. ) and
divided by the electron-surface thickness ( Eq. 1 ), which curiously introduces the
2π term.
e x C x F.S.C. / 2π x 1.296209367 x 10-18 m
= 43,037.34 Ampѐres
( Note: 43,037.34 Ampѐres depicts volumetric flow in metres-cubed per second, rather than
a certain number of electrons. The nearest mathematical approximation to metres3 per second
is given by the very curious " atomic length " cubed divided by the " atomic time ". The " atomic length "
and the " atomic time " both originate from within Planck's Constant, i.e. " e / 1st-shell radius2
all squared, divided by 752.8915667 seconds and multiplied by the electron mass times the square of the
Fine Structure Constant times Pi " equates with Planck's Constant. So, we have " the cube of
e / 1st-shell radius2. divided by 752.8915667 seconds " equals 248.7698 m3s-1.
If one divides 43,037.34 metres-cubed per second by this value of 248.7698 m3s-1, and multiplies
the result by " 2Pi times the square of the Fine Structure Constant and 10-3 ", then the answer equates with the
ratio of the 1st-shell radius to the Induction-orbit radius, i.e. 5.788395732 x 10-5. This makes sense as these latter two terms are radii which
we are concerned with in the derivation of this equation. It is also mathematically possible to start with our 3.311 milliAmpѐres from
our 1st shell magneton volumetric flow, multiply this value by 103 per unit Magneton in Ampѐres per metres and divide by
2Pi times the square of the Fine Structure Constant. The result, 9.898236089 x 103 m, is multiplied by the ratio of the square of
" e to the 1st shell radius2 "
and the total result is divided by the atomic time of 752.8915667 seconds, which equates with
43,037.34 metres-cubed per second. This formula of re-arranging mathematical terms to give our reasoning a new
viewpoint is the formula for deriving the atomic structure of the Proton.
Our “ Bev ” equation divided by the Fine Structure constant
cubed and multiplied by the electron “ ground-state ” current of
1.054 milliAmpѐres, will equal the product of
43,037.34 Ampѐres x 3.006084657 x 10-12 Newtons
as well as the product of
6.102061 x 10-8 Ampѐres x 0.212016694 Newtons
Their product gives
1.293738942 x 10-8 Newton Ampѐres
e.g. torque x Ampѐres per metre. Please see " The Ratio Rule.pdf " for a short discussion
on how ratii can be used to simplify our study of the UN atom.
This makes classical sense as
the electron’s magnetic current density, i.e. the graviton’s classical
mechanical force which is turned into the electric force as the electron’s
graviton pulls the electron around the proton, must equal the proton’s magnetic-current
density ( the magnetic force of the proton's 1st shell magnetons ). This is proposed to be due to the graviton’s
sub-units, which are discussed above, being converted into the electron’s magnetic rim
via the electron’s membrane in a classical-mechanical manner. The electron's body then
collides with the orthogonally-travelling proton's magneton, broadens the proton's magneton and stretches the
proton's magneton elastically, causing the proton's magneton to react with equal and opposite energy.
This reaction forces the electron to re-bound and continue in a nearly-circular orbit around the
proton until the electron rebounds and spin-couples with the next orthogonal-proton magneton. This is why the
inward-moving Coulomb force is orthogonal to the plane of the electron's orbit and
is twice the electric force and twice the magnetic force in the
simple-harmonic oscillator-equation. The orthogonal Coulomb force is orthogonal to both the tangent of
the electron's orbit and orthogonal to the vertical direction of the proton's magneton in the 1st-shell orbit.
The known power of the proton's magnetons
is simply the 1st-shell magneton amperage multiplied by 13.605786 eVolts.
The 1st shell magneton current of 3.311 milliAmpѐres
multiplied by the 1st-shell radius squared gives us 9.274119614 x 10-24 Ampѐre metres-squared.
This gives us 1.261816954 x 10-22 Watt metres-squared when multiplied by 13.60578693 eVolts.
This value of 1.261816954 x 10-22 Watt metres-squared compares well with
Planck's 1st Radiation Constant ( 2Pi x C2h and the Graviton force of 0.212016694
Newtons multiplied by C and the square of the proposed graviton-cycle length of 2.426316079 x 10-11m ).
The ratio of 1.261816954 x 10-22 Watt metres squared to either of these at
3.741842589 x 10-16 Watt-metres squared is 16Pi2 divided by the
square of the Fine Structure Constant.
1.293738942 x 10-8 Newton Ampѐres becomes a very interesting number.
It gives us mC2 x 10,973,702.93 photon-vibrations per metre x eC2 per unit magneton,
i.e. per unit " H " in Ampѐres per metre. Newton metres2 squared becomes the
energy of matter per unit magneton, " H ", times the maximum temperature of the Hydrogen proton x 5.
" mC2 x 10,973,702.93 photon vibrations per metre x eC2 per unit magneton " equates
with the force which is the energy per metre, multiplied by the specific volume of the energy of matter, i.e.
C2 Joules x m3 per kilogram.
This implies that the Hydrogen proton's magneton has the power to force the electron to slow down and emit
a photon of equal energy to itself, ( e.g. the electron ) and the Hydrogen proton's magneton has the power
by itself to energise the proton without the electron being there, i.e. as the ionised proton has its magnetons
travelling at the velocity of light.
It is hypothesised that when
the graviton enters the electron surface membrane, ( which it is proposed to do
as a helical coil, e.g. a spring under tension ) , that ( one-half of ) the
graviton, ( e.g. the outer-graviton half which surrounds the core ), loses one of its three degrees of
freedom, ( i.e. the z-axis of forward-axial velocity ). This outer core then is
proposed to spread itself and its sub-units, out in an expanding
two-dimensional spiral, i.e. expanding and spiralling outwards ( within the
electron's surface ) in the same direction as the electron spin ( see Fig. 1 ).
This is Stokes first equation, i.e. the integration ( multiplication of ) 1 / m3
by length to give 1 / m2. This indicates that we can tell what is going on
( i.e. what forces are occurring ) inside an electron ( a sphere ) by studying its
outer surface. For example, using Stokes equation from Kelvin, one can see what is
going on inside the volume of the Sun by studying the emanation of gravitons and magnetons directly,
as they emanate out through the Sun's surface. One can follow the flow of sunspots from below
the polar areas to the equator where the sunspots sink down to the fusion layer, i.e. the
layer where the magnetic-field rings at the poles form a vitual cyclinder of real magnetons and
meet at a specific radius out from the solar centre.
The expanding and spiralling
two-dimensional graviton sub-units, ( meanwhile ), will eventually interact with their neighbouring,
( i.e. 8 ) graviton units. ( This will be the same for the one-single magneton returning
to the north pole of its static electron in the pre-defined proton composed of
hypothetical-static spherical electrons ). These 9 graviton units are proposed to be 40 degrees
apart and have their centres located at approximately 4.0139 x 10-17
metre out from the centre of the electron. The 9 graviton units define their
position within a steradian mathematically by being equi-distant from each
other and the electron centre. The pressure of the collision between the
neighbouring gravitons' sub-units would force the graviton sub-units out
towards the electron’s magnetic rim. The sub-units would join the electron’s
magnetic-rim sub-units by losing another of the three degrees of freedom, ( i.e.
the x-axis degree of radial velocity ). The surface tension between the outgoing
inner-graviton units’ cores, ( i.e. the half of the graviton which did not lose
its axial degree of freedom and join the electron-membrane surface ), would now
have its effect. Surface tension between the outgoing-graviton's sub-units
would pull the sub-units from within the electron's outer-surface membrane into
the outgoing gravitons. Surface tension from the outgoing sub-units within the
electron's outer-surface membrane would pull sub-units from within the magnetic
rim of the electron into the outer surface of the electron's surface membrane
and hence omwards into the outgoing gravitons. The two lost degrees of freedom would be
regained as the sub-units moved from the electron rim into the outer-electron
surface ( i.e. first the negative-radial velocity-component and secondly the
outgoing axial-degree of freedom ). This is proposed to occur as the sub-units
re-join and merge with the
outgoing graviton. This process would then be cyclic, i.e. it would follow the
continuity equation of the First Law of Thermodynamics.
The graviton would now have all of its mass and volume
back, i.e. as they were before the graviton split into an inner and outer core,
whence the outer core entered the electron-surface membrane.
This fascinating world of the
sub-atomic units leads us back to the exciting world of atomic-level
physics-equations, ( which is the whole point of the study ). With the rigorous
proofs of the Laws of Thermodynamics to guide us, we can explore hypotheses and
posit possible hypotheses, ( i.e. hypotheses without experiments will constrain
their positing ). The purpose of such actions is to find experiments which can
uphold some of our hypotheses, ( e.g. by a chi-squared test ), so that our use of
" thought" hypotheses without experiments can lead us instaed into new hypotheses which can have
experiments, ( i.e. which will lead us still further onwards ).
For example, we know well
that Volts x Ampѐres equals Watts, so we can posit that Joules per metre cubed
x volumetric flow equals Watts.
The power of the
induction-state electron, ( e.g. the volumetric flow of the graviton x the
13.605 Volts of the electron in the induction-state orbit where " B Tesla x e Cbs
x velocity = kg x velocity2 / rinduction-state orbit-radius " ),
should be proportional to the power of the ( " nearly " ) free electron when it is orbiting within the last
magneton shell at the molar radius, i.e. " 1.022005 x 106 electron
Volts multiplied by e x C and divided by 2Pi x 7.347 x 10-10 metre equates with 10633.37685
Watts ".
The power
of the induction-state electron is derived from the product of the volumetric
flow of the graviton multiplied by the pressure of 13.605 Volts of the
electron. The volumetric flow of the graviton can be defined by the cross-section
of the graviton,
Cross-sectionGraviton = Pi x PL2
This multiplied by 2Pi x the graviton-orbit radius of
one graviton unit to give the volume of one graviton unit.
Cosmic orbit volumeGraviton
= Pi x PL2 x 2Pi x 1.178497606 x 1056 metres,
to give one graviton unit a volume of 6.06579 x 10-13 m3.
This is now multiplied by the graviton frequency.
FrequencyGraviton =
C m s-1 / 2.426316079 x 10-12 metres = 1.235586989 x 1020 Hz.
This equals the volumetric flow of the graviton.
The Volumetric FlowGraviton=
7.494811459 x 107 m3 s-1
This value,
7.494811459 x 107 m3 s-1
equates with the velocity of light when multiplied by 4 and divided by the unit magneton, " H " in Ampѐres per metre.
The volumetric flow of the graviton, as we said earlier,
should be proportional to the volumetric flow of the magneton,
i.e. as it was postulated that the graviton flows continually into the magneton
via the electron surface membrane ( the electric-convection potential of G.F.C. Searle ).
The volumetric flow of the magneton for both the orbiting electron and the proton's magneton,
is known to be 3.3118316 x 10-3 Ampѐres. If we divided
7.494811459 x 107 m3 s-1 by
( e x unit area x Magnetic Constant / Me x 4Pi steradian )
and multiplied it by the cube of the Fine Structure Constant and 2, we do in fact get
3.3118316 x 10-3 Ampѐres ( see the " G.F.C. Searle pdf "
and the " Engineering Terms in Classical Physics.pdf " for more equations depicting
3.3118316 x 10-3 Ampѐres ).
The volumetric flow of the graviton
multiplied by the voltage of the electron in the induction-state orbit, ( i.e.
13.6 Volts) gives
7.49481145 x 107 m3 s-1 x 13.60578693
V
= 1.019728078 x 109 Watts
The volumetric flow of the
graviton-helical coil multiplied by the ionisation voltage of the electron in the ground-state orbit,
( i.e. 1.019728078 x 109 Watts ) divided by ( the volumetric flow of the free electron
at the molar radius multiplied by the voltage of the free electron ), e.g. 10633.37685 Watts,
gives a ratio of
95,898.7997.
This ratio, when multiplied by 8Pi x F.S.C. gives the electron charge-to-mass
ratio times 10-7 in dimensionless units, i.e. 17588.07535. This
last ratio, when divided by 20Pi and multiplied by the 62,584 magneton number
( i.e. which create the induction-state orbit of the electron ), gives us the
exact ratio between the natural area of the 62,584 magnetons ( when they emanate
from a magnet of 13.605 Tesla flux density = 4.599836136 x 10-5 m2 )
and the area occupied by the 62,584 magnetons when they are orbited by induction-state electrons,
i.e. 2.625656364 x 10-12 m2. The Induction-orbit area is smaller
because the electron graviton is forced into a circular orbit by the free magnetons
in the applied magnetic field and then the electron graviton pinches and compresses the
62,584 Induction-orbit magnetons inward as the graviton units and then the electron itself,
continually orbit witihn the magnetic B-field ( as in the " Bev = mv2 / radius " experiment ).
4.599836136 x 10-5 m2 / 2.625656364 x 10-12 m2
= 1.75188048 x 107
If we look at the discussion which
immediately precedes the Planck Mass-flow Equation and the Poincaré-energy Equation,
( i.e. before Eq. 1 ), we can see that
the volumetric flow of the graviton sub-unit, ( e.g. Newton's corpuscles ) per metre equates with
Ampѐres per metre.
Then one can say that the graviton-unit cycle-length, multiplied by the mass flow of the graviton sub-unit,
which is Planck's constant divided by C squared and multiplied by the Graviton frequency squared,
should equal the energy of the electron, MeC2, i.e. the Poincaré Equation.
From the preceding paragraphs " the Volumetric Flow of the Graviton sub-unit per graviton-unit cycle-length
=
Planck L2 x Pi, divided by
[ the Graviton sub-unit frequency as a dimensionless number
1.235586 x 10 20 and multiplied by ]
2Pi x Graviton
Orbit Radius x Graviton Frequency per graviton-unit
cycle-length ",
should be in metric terms of Ampѐres per metre,
= [ PL2 x Pi/ 1.235586 x 10 20 ]
x 2Pi x 1.178497 x 10 56 m x 1.235586 x 10 20 Hz/ 2.426316 x 10 -12 m
= 0.25 Ampѐres per metre
(18)
Note that this is 1/4 of Maxwell's unit of magnetism, H,
i.e. H = the metric definition of 1 Magneton or the areal velocity of 1 square metre per second.
One can use the scaling terms 4 to make Eq. 18 work, as H = 1 Magneton per steradian
and then use one's scaling factor of 17,275, ( i.e. the quotient of the electron's induction-orbit radius to
the electron's ground-state orbit-radius ), to derive mC2 ( See Eq. 20 ).
the value of 17,275 is also the dimensionless reciprocal of Planck's angular-momentum constant per 4Pi steradian per electron-body mass.
This means that we can now derive a couple of equations, e.g. Maxwell's term for
magnetism, H ( the magnetic-field vector ) in mathematics and one can derive the specific enthalpy term of the
second law of thermodynamics as well, i.e. a change in the magneton-areal flow per unit time change gives the specific enthalpy of matter.
One can now say that the energy of the electron is proven by its internal energy plus
the product of the electron pressure and volume.
The mass flow of the graviton sub-unit is derived from Planck's Constant
divided by the energy of matter ( C2 Joules per kilogram ), multiplied by the
GravitonFrequency2 flow . The Mass flow =
[ h / C2] x ( 1.235586 x 10 20 Hz )2
Mass Flow
= 1.125562171 x 10-10 kg s-1
(19)
The volumetric flow of the graviton sub-unit per graviton-unit cycle-length, Eq. 18,
multiplied by the mass flow of the graviton sub-unit, Eq. 19, times 4 times
Planck's angular-momentum constant per electron-body mass unit and the unit magneton in Ampѐres per metre,
equals the Poincaré mass-energy relationship ( Poincaré 1897 ), mec2 .
From the 6 preceding equations, ( Eqs. 15, 16, and 17
concerning photon emission and absorption by the electron, as well as Equations 18, 19 and 20
concerning magneton and graviton emission and absorption by the electron, we can make a hypothesis.
Classically one can say, from Isaac Newton's famous 'Query',
( " Is it not obvious that matter and light are interconvertible? " ), that as soon as the electron emits light,
it must have an equal and opposite reaction. The electron, we have hypothesised,
emits light because when the free electron is decelerated into the ground state orbit, the free electron is
( at that point ) at twice its normal ground-state rest-mass, i.e. so it cannot accept any more mass flow from
the incoming graviton ( which is still travelling at the velocity of light ). The free electron is decelerated
from the velocity of light to the velocity of the Fine Structure Constant times the velocity of light
and the incoming graviton is still travelling at the velocity of light, so the energy-conversion rate
must be changed.
If the incoming graviton is still travelling at the velocity of light and it is now forced by the
decelerated electron to travel through the G.F.C. Searle electric-convection potential-surface
of the electron hemisphere, i.e. instead of travelling straight
through the decelerated electron, then this change ( of direction ) in the incoming-graviton outer half would cause
the electron to spin proportionately faster
( as the electron is proportionately decelerated ). This is hypothesised to be where the reaction of internal shear forces
overrides the reaction of surface-tension and internal viscosity forces. The interaction between electron-surface membrane surface-tension forces
( shear forces ) and viscosity forces will make the outer-graviton half shear off from the incoming graviton,
e.g. in a one-half mass times velocity-squared energy-reaction.
The central core of the incoming graviton might now travel straight through
the electron-surface membranes and emanate out of the front of the decelerated electron.
The central core of the ( half-mass ) incoming graviton will now have the capacity to absorb matter
from the surface membrane at the front of the electron, i.e. as it is now at this point in space
an outgoing graviton. The former incoming graviton, ( as we call it ), which is now an outgoing graviton,
will hypothetically pull the Newtonian corpuscles out of the front of the decelerated electron, i.e. due to viscosity forces
over-riding shear forces. This viscosity-force
phenomenon will begin inside the back hemisphere of the electron, i.e. where the incoming graviton splits
into a central core and and outer cylindrical shape, due to one-half mass times velocity-squared energy characteristics.
The central-core " corpuscles " will have viscosity dominate their interactions, as they must stick together, by exchanging matter.
At the central-core surface of the graviton half, the shear forces will dominate and the outer-cylindrical half
of the incoming graviton will now cause matter, i.e. the so-called Newtonian corpuscles,
to be pulled through the inside surface at the back of the electron into the front of the decelerated electron and into the outgoing graviton.
This classical phenomenon, i.e. involving the forces of shear, viscosity, equal and opposite reactions
and the Newtonian Law of the reversibility of light, will now cause any excess mass within the free electron
to flow towards the centre of the decelerated electron inside its inner hemisphere, i.e. where the
forces of shear stress will dominate over the forces of viscosity. The excess mass will now be forced
to leave the decelerated electron in the form of a photon ( with its direction and internal spin already
well established ). The decelerated electron will now remain in the ground-state orbit with half of its maximum
mass, e.g. as we now know it as the neutral electron-proton pair. The electron-proton pair will now follow the
Coulomb-force equation of G.F.C. Searle ( see Fig. 1 ). The electron-proton pair will also follow the
first law of thermodynamics, i.e. in regards to lowest entropy, as the electron-proton pair is now at Absolute Zero, so
the divergence of material flow will also be zero, ( after James Clerk Maxwell ).
So where does all of this physics get us to? It gets us to the point in 1913 where Bohr failed to be able
to use mathematics, i.e. Bohr failed to use the concept of a photon from Balmer in Basle in 1885. Bohr failed to use classical mechanics
in understanding how to explain the electron's continual orbit about the proton while the electron was orbiting the proton in the 1st magneton
shell of the ground-state Hydrogen atom. Bohr failed to understand how an anisotropic-dipole graviton could be connected to the electron and an
isotropic graviton could be connected to the atom and the neutron. Bohr failed after Walter Kaufmann had proven that the beta-particle
emanating from out of the neutron was just an electron. i.e. Bohr failed to understand how a gravitationally-isotropic neutron could
emit a gravitationally-anisotropic electron. Bohr failed to understand how the close-packing laws for spheres predicated an inverse-square
law system for Hydrogen-electron ionisation values as one proceeded from the first magneton shell to the sixth magneton shell and correspondingly
proceeded from the first electron-proton shell to the sixth electron-proton shell in the interior of the proton, ( e.g. as SLAC proved that the actual
surface of the proton is composite ). So is it not obvious that the proton, the neutron and the electron, are interconvertible? This is as much
as Isaac Newton said when he asked the same question ( query ) about the interconvertibility of photons and matter at the sub-atomic " corpuscular " level.
At this point in History, Bohr himself, is violating his own " correspondence " principle, e.g. he is violating the principle which states
that for each act, phenomenon, rule or law in classical mechanics, there is one act, phenomenon, rule or law in quantum mechanics. This is unprincipled.
Similarly, for a person to state that there is a space-time matrix without having a single experiment to prove the existence of such a space-time matrix anywhere or
at anytime is specifically relating evidence for that person to be charged with scientific fraud, i.e. they are to be charged with mens rea and actus reus.
For example, at 9/10 of the distance from the reality of the Earth of Rea to the imaginary magic of the Moon of Mona, the gravitational-accelerational forces of
the Moon and the Earth are equal and in opposite directions ( Isaac Newton ). If there was a hypothetical space-time matrix that mass moved through and caused
the matrix to pull matter into both the Moon's central point and the Earth's central point, then the matrix would have to force matter from the same point to move
in opposite directions at the same time along the same vector line of force. This is impossible and cannot be proved because experiments prove that a vector can only
move in one direction at a time. Similarly, electrons placed at this 9/10 distance point would travel towards the nearest magnetic field, regardless of any
gravitational forces emanating from the Moon, the Earth or the Sun and they would add isotropic gravitational mass to any proton ( by K-shell capture ) regardless as
to whether the proton came from the Moon, the Earth or the Sun. Finally, electrons orbiting in the plane of the equators of Hydrogen 2 molecules, in the plane of the
" D-disc experiment " ( Please see figures 2 and 3 ) will have anisotropic graviton units emanating from the front of the electrons and anisotropic graviton units being absorbed at the rear
of the electrons. Whether or not these phenomena can be tested for, i.e. simply by placing a strong-magnetic field near these electrons, remains a query for the younger
generation of Republicans to test for.
So we can see here now that the electron can change the " so-called " space-time matrix merely by its pointing itself in any anisotropic direction and
change the " so-called " space-time matrix from being anisotropic in regards to the " free electron " being isotropic in the Proton's " K-shell " capture of a bound ground-state
electron proton-to-neutron mutation phenomenon.
This clearly violates the " correspondence " principle as these phenomena can only be explained and proven by experiment with classical mechanics.
We can see now for the moment that Newton's and Kepler's ancient-classical laws can be applied to the atomic-ground state.
The modern-classical laws of Kelvin, Carnot and Clausius influenced Maxwell and Heaviside,
causing them to draw up their mathematics classically and one might add here that Maxwell and Heaviside tried to imitate classical-mathematics mannerisms
without simplifying their own mannerisms. The laboratory experiments remain to be proven so that the modern-day
Hydrogen-atom no longer remains lost in the mythical mists of Time. ( Please see the portable-documents file on The Experiments if you have time ).
APPENDIX
Perpetual Motion ( GB2410770 ), Anti-gravitational Force Engines
(GB2368910), Free Energy and all that remains for future studies
So where does all of our
classical mechanics and classical physics lead us? It leads us to experiments
to test for an anti-gravitational force-engine
( British Patent number GB2368910 ). British Patent number GB2368910
is a spinning gyroscope with spiral-horizontal arms. By D'Alembert's Principle,
a stationary object which spins at the Earth's escape velocity ( 11,181 metres
per second), will de-couple from the Earth's gravitational acceleration,
( Newton's Second Law ),
just the same as will an object which travels past the Earth with a velocity
which is greater than the Earth's escape velocity ( Newton's First Law ).
What would occur is the following; the Earth's gravitational-acceleration field
would be moved outward from the interior of the spinning gyroscope and become compressed
into a smaller ( ring-like area ) at the exterior perimeter of the spinning gyroscope.
This local phenomenon would cause increased-downward
gravitational-acceleration if the object were dropped within the ring area
and would permit an object to have decreased-downward
gravitational-acceleration, i.e. if the object were placed over the centre of the
spinning gyroscope, as the Earth's gravitons would now be condened within a virtual
ring just outside of the spinning gyroscope.
This study leads us to over-unity heat production, ( i.e. as Peltier devices produce a theoretical
value of 100% electrical efficiency and a theoretical value of 200% heat efficiency ).
This is because the function of the device is to transfer electrons from one side of the device to the other side,
i.e. by transferring electrons to the " cool side " from the " hot side ". This phenomenon also causes heat to be
generated by the I squared R product ( in the conductor ) as atomic-dynamic viscosity per metre cubed. This is because
Resistance in Ohms equals atomic-dynamic viscosity per metre cubed and atomic-angular momentum per metre cubed ( Planck's Constant )
equals dynamic viscosity ). These phenomena cause free electrons surrounding the conductor to become involved in replacing conduction
electrons in the conductor ( electrons in the conductor which have removed by temporarily-ionised
protons in the material surrounding the conductor ).
The purpose of Peltier-device design is to design a material which will move electrons from an area to another area
from one side of an object to its opposite facing side. When the Peltier device starts to move bound
electrons from the " hot side " of an object to the " cold side " of the object, the device ionises the protons
on the surface of the " hot side " and the newly-ionised atoms expand their magnetons
to replace their lost bound electrons with captured " free electrons ". These " free electrons " become the newly-bound
electrons and release heat photons which cause the " hot side " to be continually hot,unless the " hot side "
is cooled by some form of matter, i.e. some form of matter such as de-ionised water. The heat photons emitted from these
re-captured " free electrons " is distinct from the heat produced by the conducting-wires material's
re-captured " free electrons ", i.e. the heat produced from the " hot side " material is distinct from the I squared times
Resistance heat emitted by the electric current in the conducting material.
The Peltier devices are the optimal candidates for experiments involving efficient electricity-generators.
Patent GB2410770, ( by the author ), describes this.
This is how the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem can be applied to a less-than
atmospheric-pressure liquid-boiler, i.e. water at room temperature in a
near-vacuum. The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that to have maximum
efficiency of electrical-energy transfer between an electricity generator and
its load ( the output, e.g. a tungsten-filament lightbulb ), the resistance of the
( generator-winding ) wire that the magnet passes across must equal the
resistance of the generator-output load, e.g. a wire filament in a light bulb.
At room temperature,
resistance in a wire that the magnet passes across, will always produce heat.
The heat produced is always measured in Watts as I squared times R, ( where I is
the current in Ampѐres and R is the resistance in Ohms ). The heating is known
as Joules heating and the power of this heating is always equal to the power
produced by the electricity generator, ( i.e. which the tungsten-filament light bulb uses ) and
power is also commonly known as energy dissipation per second.
The heat produced by an
electricity generator is normally very low, e.g. it is slightly warmer than
room temperature, hence the power is dissipated as low energy dissipation per second,
compared to the power of a 100 Watt light bulb ( a tungsten-filament light bulb is high-energy
dissipation at a high temperature ). The trick then to produce useful electrical
energy is to lower the atmospheric pressure around the magnet passing across
the wire ( the magnet and the wire are now placed underwater ). Water will start to boil
at 20 degrees Centigrade if the atmospheric pressure is reduced to
approximately 1% of atmosphere pressure.
If a heated fluid at 30 - 35 degrees
Centigrade flows under the boiler base and the working fluid inside the boiler is at 20 degrees Centigrade,
then the water will boil and the water vapour
will push the water up a tube, e.g. much like a geyser. A propeller placed at
the top of a shaft will rotate due to the geyser pressure and a magnet placed at the
bottom of the propeller shaft will rotate across the generator-winding wire ( at the bottom of the
shaft within the boiler tube ) and produce electrical power, i.e. 100 Watts. The generator-winding wire will also
produce 100 Watts of Joules heating at ~30 - 35 degrees Centigrade and this heating will produce extra water vapour,
which in turn will produce extra geyser
motion. This extra geyser energy will produce even more dynamo energy, i.e. at 100 Watts ( considering the efficiency of the dynamo ).
The propeller will rotate the shaft ever faster ( until the cooling ability of the coolant
fluid at the top of the propeller-shaft tube is exhausted ).
The coolant fluid must be able to
condense all of the vapour which is pushing up the water or
the pressure within the propeller-shaft tube will rise and hence the
temperature that the water will boil at, will rise above 20 degrees Centigrade.
If the pressure rises within the propeller-shaft tube,
then a higher and higher-temperature heat-source will be required, until the pressure within
the propeller-shaft tube is at its own normal ( outside ) ambient pressure and
we will have lost the ability to boil water at less than 100-degrees Centigrade.
If we can maintain the pressure within the propeller-shaft tube at ~1% of normal-ambient pressure,
then the efficiency of the
electricity generator will be raised to over 100% and if waste heating is
available from other appliances, ( i.e. from other heat sources above 20 degrees Centigrade ),
then perpetual motion can be achieved and perpetual-free electricity-generation can be achieved.
A 100-Watt tungsten-filament lght-bulb produces 10 Watts of visible-white light and 90 Watts of
infra-red heat. If you place the 100-Watt light-bulb, i.e. a tungsten-filament motorcycle/bicycle headlight bulb,
back into the inside of the vacuum container, then you wll get 90% of your energy back, i.e from the
infra-red heat emission due to the inefficiency built within the light-bulb filament.
This patent is obtainable as a licence ( from The Hague ). For maximising optimal profit from developing a nano-technology product
to obtain cheap-electrical energy from renewables, I will provide a consultancy for a University sponsorship for an MRes to build the item.
i.e. for a guaranteed return from a patentable
item.
Please feel free to send questions to Dunstan Dunstan MSc MSc MPhys BScTech BSc at dunstand123@gmail.com
GLOSSARY
atom
The ancient Greek Democritus defined atom from " a tomos " meaning not some but one body.
A proton, from the Greek " protos " meaning first, is a simple atom without its normally-orbiting electron.
A proton is composed of 1836 static-spheroidal electrons, which are held together by gravitons within
the fusion-coherence length, which is the diameter of the proton. The magnetons compose 1/7 the mass
of the electron and proton. The surface membrane of the electric-convection potential ( G.F.C. Searle ) composes
2/7 the mass of the electron and proton. The graviton composes 4/7 the mass of the electron and proton.
The graviton unit, of which there are 9 outgoing units and thus 9 incoming units, are octo-decapole as in the
symmetrical intersection of three snowflakes. Each unit has a unit energy per unit volume of 32,444.608
electronVolts, thus 18 times 32,444.608 electronVolts times 1836 static-spheroidal electrons = 1,072,229,736
electronVolts. 1,072,229,736 electronVolts equates with the binding energy of the proton ( Robert Turnbull The
Structure of Matter 1979 Glasgow ).
electron
An electron ( named after Elektra ) is a dual-shaped particle, thus it has two shapes, one for the
ground-state orbital electron and another temporary spheroidal shape while the electron resides within the neutron
centre as the Beta-particle ( Walter Kaufmann 1901 ). The shape of the ground-state orbital electron is a dual
hemisphere where the two hemispheres are both connected at their equatorial-magneton rim by the momentum-flow
force of matter moving from one inner hemisphere to the other outer hemisphere, through the circumferential-magnetic
rim due to the laws of centripetal force and the continuity equation of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics. The shape of
the ground-state orbital electron is due to the anisotropic re-allignment of the isotropic graviton units of the Beta-particle
within the neutron, when the neutron re-emits the Beta-particle. The re-allignment of the isotropic graviton-unit
Beta-particle implodes the hollow-static spheroidal Beta-particle electron into two interconnected hemispheres.
The incoming 9 graviton units of the spheroidal Beta-particle electron re-enter the inner-rear hemisphere of the
electron and transfer graviton mass into the inner-hemisphere surface thus causing the hemisphere and electron to spin.
The mass which does not become transferred remains within the graviton and penetrates both the inner
hemisphere and the outer-forward hemisphere where its regains the transferred mass from the outer
hemisphere as the graviton units arise out through the outer hemisphere and travel onwward into free space.
The decelerated electron spins up to and at the velocity of light when it comes into contact with a proton
magneton which it spin-couples with as the electron orbits within the ground-state magneton-orbital shell of
the proton or when the orbiting electron is within any magneton-orbital shell of the proton. When the electron
has absorbed a photon of equal mass to itself, the electron accelerates up to the velocity of light and remains
at the velocity of light, where it thus has no spin or graviton-mass transfer through itself. When this free electron
is decelerated from the velocity of light to the ground-state velocity of the electron, its spin increases
proportionately as its forward velocity decreases, thus obeying the continuity equation of the 1st Law of
Thermodynamics and the laws concerning the creation and destruction of energy arisingh from the 1st Law of
Thermodynamics. When the free electron is completely decelerated from the velocity of light to the
ground-state velocity, the free electron makes forward-vector contact and sideways-vector spin-contact
with a proton magneton in the ground-state magneton orbit, as in synchotron-radiation emission, but the
free electron fails to cause synchotron-radiation emission due to the free electron doing spin-work on the proton
magneton. This spin-coupling work, which accelerates the proton magneton up to the velocity of light, thus
transforms spin energy from the electron into becoming spin energy within the proton magneton. As the proton
magneton was already spinning at the Fine Structure Constant times the the velocity of light, the proton magneton
cannot absorb all of the spin energy of the electron. As the electron cannot pierce the proton magneton as it does
in synchotron radiation phenomena, due to the electron not having attained a high-enough velocity, but instead
having converted most of its forward-vector energy into sideways-vector spin energy, the electron transfers spin
energy into the proton magneton and is rebounded by the proton magneton in a Newtonian equal and opposite
reaction. This reaction has two effects as the reaction first speeds up the proton-magneton velocity, thus winding
the proton-magneton in with increased proton-magneton momentum-flow force, thus transferring increased mass
flow into the proton and the free electron is effectively stopped for a moment, before the free electron is forced
onward within the ground-state orbit.
As the free electron is stopped for a moment, it is rebounded by the elastically-stretched
proton magneton. This momentary stoppage and rebound causes an extra reverse-momentum flow force within the
electron inner hemisphere where the graviton units are transferring momentum-flow force into the inner hemisphere.
The 9 incoming-graviton units occupy an area which approximates a steradian within the inner-electron hemisphere
at 9 symmetrically-spaced points approximately 40 degrees apart on an imaginary circle within the inner hemisphere.
The excess mass of the free-electron's photon, which the free electron has previously absorbed is stored within this
imaginary-circular area and volume, thus giving momentum to the free electron instead of being transferred out of
the free electron into the outgoing graviton units. As the proton magneton rebounds upon collision with the
decelerating-free electron, the reverse rebound wave stops the free-electron spin from transferring energy into the
proton magneton thus causing matter transfer from the incoming-graviton units to build up excess mass flow at the
point where the 9 graviton units make contact with the inner hemisphere of the decelerated-free electron. The
mass flow has components of negative radial and centripetal vector motion in terms of Maxwell's Laws
concerning the collision of two masses where their areal-mass flows meet. This areal collision forces this
excess-reverse mass-flow wave phenomenon to occur at the centre of the inner-electron hemisphere where the two
Maxwellian-vector components of radial and centripetal areal-mass flow meet orthogonally and breaks the surface
tension of the inner-hemisphere's surface membrane. The result of the collision is that a photon is emitted, which
has the same mass and spin vector as the decelerated-free electron, but which has an opposite-velocity vector
as the decelerated-free electron does, as it emanates backwards in an opposite direction to the decelerated ground-state electron
( Yves Brihaye and Betti Hartmann 2004, Dick, R. and McArthur, D. M. E. 2002 ).
graviton
A graviton is a cosmic-filament " Cosmic String ", with a drawn-out coiled-spring structure having a string
diameter of twice the Planck Length and a total length of 2Pi times the radius of the primordial universe. Graviton
units all have the same helical-conservation of angular-momentum structure which permits them to screw through
objects, internally into their surface as in the electron surface of the Beta-particle or to screw between internal
surfaces as in the internal structure of protons and neutron when the Earth's gravitons pulll matter downwards.
This is how we feel gravitation phenomena pulling us down. A graviton is composed of 9 graviton units, which are
spaced symmetrically on the anisotropic-electron surface and symmetrically on the Beta-particle isotropic surface.
The graviton units emanate 9 times out from the surface of the electron and thus return 9 times as the graviton
units are interconnected with the electron surface and with the other graviton units. Within the proton and the neutron,
the graviton units penetrate the surface of neighbouring-adjacent spheroidal-static electrons and commute momentum-
flow force through the surface and centre of each neighbouring adjacent spheroidal-static electron as the graviton
units pass through each part of the proton and the neutron on their way outwards and back inwards to the spheroidal-static
electron which they have emanated from. ( Dunstan BRITGRAV4, BRITGRAV5 2004, 2005 )
magneton
The magneton ( from Pierre Weiss who came up with the term and edited Walter Ritz Work " Oeuvres " on the subject ),
is a one dimensional sub-particle which has two forms. It primarily consists of a one-dimensional wire-like atomic sub-particle
which has two degrees of freedom within it, a centripetal spin which complements its axial-centrifugal flight out from the south
pole of the proton ( Heaviside Electrical Papers 1893 ). The radius of the magneton within itself is the Planck Length, which is
similar to the graviton except that the magneton lacks the third degree component of freedom of movement which is constituted
by the radial degree of freedom. This is the radial component which gives the corkscrew-like behaviour to the graviton. The
radius of orbit of the magneton, as the magneton emanates from out of the south pole of a static-spheroidal electron within the
proton and then subsequently returns to the north pole of that bespoke static-spheroidal electron within the proton, is typically
5.291785381 x 10-11 metres. This is the usual diameter of the magneton orbit of the 1st-shell magneton within
the Hydrogen atom's ground-state electron orbit. The maximum-Hydrogen magneton orbit radius for the neutral atom is twice
this 1st-shell radius and the maximum radii for the ionised proton are Pi2 divided into the reciprocal of the Fine
Structure Constant, multiplied by either the 1st-shell radius or the last 6th-shell radius of the Hydrogen atom. In a current-carrying
conductor, the last magneton can extend some 20 metres for every Ampѐre in the current-carrying conductor. The Sun's
magnetic field can extend out towards Jupiter in disc-like formation once it has passed the environs of Mercury, due to the solar
wind force entangling itself with the Sun's magnetic field. In the normal and ionised Hydrogen atom the other magneton shells
are symmetrically spaced between the 1st shell and the last shell ( Thiѐle ). The usual radial positions of the proton's magnetons
are non-changing laterally as the proton's magnetons can increase their velocities and lengths in order to attempt to re-capture
a lost electron and maintain the proton's neutral size. The minimum velocity of the magneton in the neutron Beta-particle is just a
mathematical calculation, based upon the Planck Constant and the ratio of the proton's radius to the electron's radius. This is some
3.0657 metres per second, which is 1/38 multiplied by the velocity of light times the cube of the Fine Structure Constant.
Consequently, the velocity of the neutron's magnetons at twice the neutron radius is 116 metres per second or the velocity of light
times the cube of the Fine Structure Constant. The velocity of the 1st-shell magneton in the Hydrogen atom is 2.1876 million
metres per second, which is velocity of light times the Fine Structure Constant. The magneton in the ionised proton can accelerate
up to the velocity of light as magnetons in a magnet do. Due to the continuity equation of the First Law of
Thermodynamics, the magneton must accelerate as it leaves the south pole of the proton in order to compensate for its
lengthening itself, in order to arrive back at the north pole of the proton at the correct time. The other form which the magneton takes
is in the form of the circumferential rim which allows the electron to commute half the incoming mass of the graviton into
second-dimensional radial and centripetal mass flow with the electron's surface membrane, followed by the electron commuting half the
second-dimensional radial and centripetal mass flow into first-dimensional radial and centripetal mass flow, within the magneton rim. This
configuration phenomena allows the electron to spin-couple with the proton's magneton as the electron orbits within the proton's
magneton shells.
mass
Mass is a given definite amount of matter within a given definite shape within a given definite volume, so it is a given
definite shape with a given definite density. The opposite is a vacuum, which has no density whatsoever, anywhere or at any time.
Mass usually moves at the speed of light unless the specific shape is doing some useful work within one of its components of axial-,
radial- or centripetal-volumetric flow and force. This occurs when the electron does work by winding in the proton's magnetons or when
the free electron is decelerated and emits a photon, thus changing the electron's forward and spin components of velocity, mass flow
and force in order to balance the proton's energy-compensation requirements. The largest mass is the Cosmos, which one can find by
dividing the square of the escape velocity of light by the unit acceleration and 4Pi. This gives 6.276581482 x 1084 kg.
The largest mass multiplied by the square of the smallest length, the Planck Length squared, when divided by 2Pi times the Cosmos
radius itself, which is then divided by the velocity of light to give the time of flight of a particle around the Cosmos circumference, will
equate with the angular momentum of the Planck Constant. The smallest known mass is the electron mass, which is approximately
9.109534001 x 10-31 kg. The ratio between the two extreme mass examples equates with the square of the Cosmos
radius multiplied by 16Pi3. If we divided the Planck Constant by the energy of matter, which is the square of the velocity
of light in Joules per kilogram, this gives 7.3272636707 x 10-51 kilograms per cycle. If we next multiply this term by the
frequency of the graviton, we arrive at the mass of the electron. This implies that there may exist a smaller particle than the electron,
working within the electron, which means that this small bit of matter must move around within the electron itself, doing work. The work
done by this small bit of matter must integrate mathematically, or sum up mechanically, to depict all of the totals of the components' work
done by the mass flow and force within the electron's graviton, its surface membrane and its magneton. This matter form may change its
shape and lengthen or shorten, in much the same manner as a photon does, when a photon collides with the front of an electron and then
subsequently is absorbed by another electron. Thus the same photon, which has been shortened by an electron-frontal collision or
lengthened by gravitational redshifting ( Mossbauer ), will subsequently be absorbed by an electron and force the electron to have
different final masses. This recorded data show that mass, in terms of photon collision with electrons, will have a different meaning,
due to the phenomenal parameters involved in the actual sub-atomic process of photon absorption occurring at the surface of the
electron's membrane and within the membrane while the electron reacts to its axial, radial and centripetal-mass flows due to the
electron's reactions to its axial, radial and centripetal-mass forces, i.e. in order to balance its phenomenological interchange-of-state function.
momentum-flow force
The momentum-flow force, kilogram-metres per seconds per unit time, is the change in the momentum of
an atomic sub-particle, atomic particle or super-particle, per unit time. This unit gives us kilogram-metres per second
squared as are the metrics concerning the phenomenon of force. The difference here from the normal usage of force is
that the term momentum-flow force involves a change in direction of the considered momentum which we are concerned
with per unit dimension as well as per unit time. When a sub-atomic particle, such as a graviton or a magneton, returns
to the surface membrane of an electron it may lose or gain a degree of freedom of one of the X,Y or Z degrees of freedom
as well as change a component of its degrees of freedom orthogonally to its original vector of momentum. When a graviton
returns to the electron-surface membrane half of its mass loses its three-dimensional forward-vector axial flow and gains
2-dimensional radial and centripetal flow as it joins the electron-membrane surface, due to the force of resistance of the
2-dimensional electron-membrane surface within a certain timeframe. This phenomenon demonstrates how a typical
one-half mass times velocity-squared kinetic-energy collision occurs. This timeframe is determined by the velocity of light
and the velocity of the electron. The resisitance of the electron-surface membrane to a penetrating momentum flow is
determined by the spring constant of the electron-surface membrane. The term momentum flow, itself, originated in an
Open University course on fluid flow ( T236 The Open University ). The momentum flow of a sub-atomic particle, such as
a graviton, which is already connected to the electron, is different from the momentum flow of an independent particle which
collides with another independent particle. Consequently, a particle may bounce off another particle, such as a photon which
collides with the front of an electron, or the particle may be absorbed by the other particle, such as a photon which collides
with the rear of an electron when the electron is travelling slower than the velocity of light. Alternatively, a particle may
temporarily join another particle, such as an electron joining a proton, which will cancel the proton's radial expansion
momentum of its magnetons, but the collision will not greatly affect the forward momentum of the proton or its spin and the
forward momentum of the electron will be cancelled. As Professor Tony McDonnell of the University of Kent said " To
remove momentum from a system, you must remove mass " ( Professor McDonnell, University of Kent 1998 ). The
momentum flow must always change direction orthogonally within a particle to initiate any change in a phenomenon. A
study of the nature of the forces of resistance to momentum flow will reveal Nature's sub-atomic corpuscular-flow structure.
neutron
A neutron or " neutral particle " is a proton which has absorbed an electron, thus the momentum-flow
force of the ground state electron orbiting within the proton should equate with the the total mass and neutral energy
of the proton. 18 times 1837 times the mass of the ground-state electron should equate with the mass of the proton
and its orbiting ground-state electron. The neutron has a mass of 1838 and 4/7 the mass of the ground-state electron.
The extra mass which the proton does not contain is due to the electron having absorbed a photon of equal mass
to itself, before the electron itself is absorbed by the proton. The 4/7 remaining extra neutron mass is due to the 18
graviton units in the absorbed electron fusing with the surface-membrane walls of the neighbouring static-spheroidal
electrons in the proton's centre. The absorbed-electron fusing phenomenon is due to the constraints of the
close-packing laws for spheres within the proton centre. There are thus 18 neighbouring static-spheroidal electrons
around every static-spheroidal electron within the proton and within the neutron. A neutron by itself will thus exist for
approximately 752.89 seconds before emitting its central electron and becoming once again a proton-electron
occurrence ( Walter Kaufmann 1901 ). The binding energy of a proton with a neutron is thus approximately equal
to the momentum-flow force of 34 gravitons in planes parallel to the equators of the proton and the neutron and
35 gravitons in planes parallel to the equators of the proton and the neutron. The neutron apparently absorbs
the energy of one graviton unit continually, thus the binding energy between a proton and a neutron in the Deuterium atom is
approximately 69 times 32,444.608 electronVolts. This equates with 2.238677 Mega-electronVolts. The graviton units which are
parallel to the equators of both the proton and the neutron are the only binding graviton units. This is due to the
stereochemistry of the Deuterium atom in space because the proton and the neutron take specific X,Y,Z co-ordinate spatial
positions due to their specifically-coherent energy dissipation per unit time, i.e. the coherent graviton and magneton vectors.
This phenomenal occurrence of permanent spatial positioning is because the the principle of lowest entropy applies.
The protons and neutrons do not move around as this would change the stereochemistry of proton bonds and require extra
added energy. For example, it is approximately 5 times more difficult, for an enzyme involved in a biochemical reaction,
to deal with a Deuterium atom than with a Hydrogen atom during the reaction occurring within the active site of the enzyme.
( Rawn, Biochemistry 1983 ).
photon
The photon ( from the Greek " photos " meaning light ), is the Newtonian corpuscular-like particle. Its equivalent
phenomenological existence equates with a pressure-relief system, i.e. where excess mass, which is under specific pressure
within an enclosed specific shape is released, in order to avoid the breaking of the specific shape, e.g. the electron or magneton.
In these cases the specific shape is the electron and the magneton, from which most photon emissions occur. Occasionally
an electron will collide with another electron and photon emission may occur. The photon particle is emitted when an electron
collides orthogonally with a single-travelling magneton, i.e. as in synchroton emission of photons at Daresbury RAL and when
the free electron, e.g. an electron orbiting above the ground-state proton shell, is decelerated from free space or from an orbit
above the ground-state proton shell down into a lower-orbit proton shell. Free electrons can also cause photon emission
when they collide with free magnetons travelling in free space. This constitutes an electric field with the electron travelling
orthogonally insead of parallel to it. The collision of the free electron's graviton units with the orthogonally-travelling magneton
units causes the free electron to curve. Instead of going straight, the curving of the free electron's flight path causes it to lose
some of its forward velocity and gain some new curving-sideways velocity. The incoming graviton in back of the free electron is
still going straight at the velocity of light, so when the free electron loses some of its forward velocity, i.e. slowing down a little from
the velocity of light, the incoming graviton moves into the rear hemisphere of the free electron and starts the free electron to spin
sideways as it slows down and mass from the incoming graviton can now build up in the inside central part of the electron's inner
hemisphere. When the free decelerating electron now collides with one of the travelling magnetons, at right angles to one
another, the free electron stops for a moment and a pulse of light is emitted in the form of one photon. This emission is due to the
incoming graviton speeding up the free electron's rim spin to the velocity of light. While the electron-rim spin is at the velocity of light,
the rim spin cannot go any faster, so if there is more graviton-mass deceleration going on, the extra mass will flow into the inside
central part of the electron's inner hemisphere, i.e. the central part where the spin velocity is lower. ( Yves Brihaye and Betti
Hartmann 2004, Dick, R. and McArthur, D. M. E. 2002 ). It is from this area that the single photon is emitted, i.e. due to the shear
forces overriding the viscosity forces which hold the electron together. This means that the photon sub-particle units become
parallel to the electron-surface units, instead of linking with them orthogonally, in order for the photon to be able to break away
from the electron-membrane surface without breaking it. We know from G.F.C. Searle that if two adjacent particles are travelling
at the same velocity then there can be no force between them ( G.F.C. Searle, Philosophical Society 1897 ).
It is not known, i.e. by any modern experiment, whether a ground-state electron can be accelerated up
to the velocity of light solely with a magnetic field and then forced to collide with a travelling-magneton in an electric-field experiment
or decelerated down into another proton and emit a photon without first having a photon put into the back of the ground-state electron,
i.e. in order to speed up the electron and make it a free electron. This is what normally occurs in the natural world.
The photon itself may hypothetically be composed of parallel thread-like fibrous units, i.e. like fibres in
rope which overlap the next set of fibres in rope, in order to hold the rope together. The overlapping would be staggered under normal
conditions concerning non-emission of photons from magnetons and electrons, but when a magneton is under pressure from a
decelerating electron or when an electron is under pressure from gravitons on a decelerating electron, the overlapping staggered
ends will slide back unitl they are at the same starting points and break out from with the magneton surface or the electron-inner
surface, i.e. they break out at right-angles to the surface, thus emitting a photon. Thus a corpuscular-like photon unit which suddenly
becomes orthogonal to its normally-parallel magneton and graviton sub-units, may have shear forces develop, which override their
magnetons' and gravitons' normal internal-viscosity forces.
Ever since the timing of the dawning of humanity coinciding with the foundation of Science, i.e. the work of the
Dolmen people at Stonehenge, Port Madog, Port Talbot, Betwas Y Coed, The Roll Right Stones, The Tolmen Stone, the Nine Maidens
and the original Merry Maidens, the photon, has had its mystical origins. From the prismatic Rainbow of the Sun's corona outwards to the
multi-photon excitation of the atom inwards, it provides a cloud of uncertainty over its origin. It is perhaps fitting that its character stems
from its proper understanding arising from Cornwall " the Rainbow-Corona Vales ". While we remember that both Newton and Dalton were
colourblind, we find that others were blind to the true meaning of the change in photon length which occurs when an initial incident
photon is re-emitted from the initial-incident proton, i.e. the Compton Effect, after Arthur Holly Compton, Physical Review 1923.
Compton showed that the re-emitted photon, which is not a reflected photon, had a change in photon
length which varied from zero change up to twice the h / Electron Mass x C length of our graviton cycle length of 2.426316081
x 10-12 metres. This change was noted statistically for a statistical X-ray count, a statistical graphite count and a statistically-
analysed ionised-gas count as the angle of incidence of the initial-incident photon was changed from zero degrees to 180 degrees. This
change might have something to do with the electron moving forward 2.426316081 x 10-12 metres along the graviton for
one cycle length as the photon is absorbed and having one cycle of the graviton length move into the back of the electron as the electron
is stopped at the magneton-spin coupling point as the photon is emitted. This means that the photon of 1 cycle length is absorbed into the
electron while at the same time the electron moves forward one graviton-cycle length of 2.426316081 x 10-12 metres along the electron
graviton and the rim-spin velocity of the electron rim slows down in a negative amount which is equal to the increase in the electron forward
velocity forward at the same time as the electron moves forward one graviton-cycle length of 2.426316081 x 10-12 metres.
When the electron is decelerated and stopped momentarily upon collision with a proton magneton the exact opposite happens. As the
electron changes its forward velocity negatively it increases its electron-rim spin velocity proportionately as the photon of 1 cycle length is
emitted while one graviton-cycle length of 2.426316081 x 10-12 metres passes through the inner-rear hemisphere of the electron.
( Yves Brihaye and Betti Hartmann 2004, Dick, R. and McArthur, D. M. E. 2002, Dunstan BritGrav4 2004 )
The experiment needs to be done
again, i.e. in order to show what the position of the initial-incident proton is in regards to the plane of its equatorial-orbiting
ground-state electron and to show where the polar axis of the initial-incident proton is in the experiment. This is important to the
overall understanding why Compton did not show, but the experiment did, that the initial-incident photon is not the same as the
final-emitted photon, nor is its initial electron the same as the final-emitting electron. The initial-incident photon was absorbed by an
orbital ground-state electron in one of the lighter elements and at 17keVolts of energy. The initial-incident electron was then
accelerated out of the proton and became a free electron. All free electrons are the same, i.e. all electrons travelling at the velocity
of light and having a rest mass of twice the rest mass of the ground-state electron are the same. The initial-incident proton which
lost the electron now recoils by expanding its magneton shells up to the limiting-molar radius, in order to re-capture an electron,
in order to become a stable-neutral atom again, i.e. as protons always do ( after the Cosmological Principles ).
The proton next re-captures a different free electron and decelerates this new-free
electron to the ground state orbit whereupon the new-free electron emits a different-new photon of a new length. This new length
varies from zero to twice the graviton-cycle length of 2.426316081 x 10-12 metres as the angle of incidence varies. A further
experiment involving single photon emitters, X-ray analysis of the fine structure of the crystal and an initially-cooled solid such as
diamond, instead of graphite, might clear up the controversey of what is going on for the voting taxpayers who fund all of this.
The experiment proved once and for all that the photon is a particle. The debate went on however as the
so-called quantum-mechanics people, i.e. the Solvay Conference people, kept re-inserting wave functions ( and then wave mechanics )
back into the discussion in order to appease the statistical-mechanics people. It is improper to insert wave functions ( and then wave
mechanics ) into a field of physics which concerned a single initial-incident quantum particle, e.g. an individual photon, electron and
proton, each with distinct and unique characteristics which changed as the incident phenomena changed around the photon, electron
and proton particle. This is what religions have done as people believe their personal feelings are personal opinions, i.e. instead
of observing and noting all of the facts first.
